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D esign and Technology Education: An International Journal 15.1

Abstract

Children often experience the influence of technology

around them , but there is little em phasis placed on

technology w ithin a scientific education in G rundschule

(prim ary schools) in G erm any. O ne of the reasons for this

could be a lack of research projects that ascertain young

learnersconceptions of technical issues. So there is no

basis for creating learning environm ents that enable and

m otivate children to actively and purposefully w ork on

questions of technical procedures. An investigation intothe previous know ledge held by nine to ten year old

children of sim ple m achines has dem onstrated childrens

reasoning. It show s that experiences handling m aterials

can lead to childrens understanding of technological

processes. Starting from the intuitive levelof

understanding, the children can attain the factual leveland

finally the level oftechnical awarenessin a circular m odel.

This m odel of thinking processes provides a basis for

creating teaching m odules that extend current

technological education in G erm an schools.

Key wordssim ple m achines, technological thinking processes,

technological education, teaching and learning

Introduction

Childrens everyday life and their questions about it are at

the core of technology education in prim ary schools.

Children are surrounded by an im m ense com plexity, both

in technical contexts and procedures. The question is how

to plan and structure teaching units that help pupils to

im prove their know ledge and understanding of com plex

phenom ena in everyday life. To answ er this question it is

necessary to investigate the w ay pupils deal w ith com plex

issues. U nfortunately, how ever, in the published teaching

resources available in G erm any, one can only find

concepts that ignore the pupilsprevious know ledge; use

abstract m ethods of explaining com plex issues; and have

little connection w ith real-life situations.

The follow ing article presents the results of a research

project w ith third and fourth graders on the com plex topic

Transporting a heavy w eight using sim ple m achines. It

focuses on the pupilsattem pts to analyse the functionality

of a rolling board, a fixed pulley and a pole. It identifies

w hether, and how , children are able to form ulate and

identify im portant elem ents of a m eaningful explanation.The findings are presented in a m odel that suggests a

circular developm ent of thinking processes w hich is used

to develop teaching resources that correlate w ith the

childrens thinking, com m unication capability and previous

know ledge.

Research Context

In the last thirty years know ledge of childrens concepts of

scientific topics has increased (Duit, 2009), but there has

been far less research concerning technological issues,

particularly in G erm any. Therefore it w as necessary tochoose a topic and develop a research design that could

generate findings about the childrens capacity to deal w ith

technical procedures as w ell as about the structure of

appropriate know ledge and thinking processes. Sim ple

m achines surround children in m any transportation

processes in their everyday life, so w e can assum e that

they are fam iliar w ith this issue. Furtherm ore this topic is

sufficiently open-ended that the findings m ight be

transferable to other contexts in technology education. The

investigation does not focus on particular scientific term s

or law s, rather on the w ays children use sim ple m achines

to transport a heavy w eight and develop their ideas aboutthe lightening of the load that they could feel during the

transportation. Thus the research project is based on four

central questions:

1. H ow do prim ary school children create possible

solutions for the transportation of a heavy w eight and

w hich sim ple m achines do they use for this purpose?

2. W hat know ledge do children have concerning the

m echanical functionalities?

3. W hat is their know ledge based upon? Are they able to

find analogies to sim ilar constructions or parts of it?

4. W hat term s do children use w hen they try to explain the

facility of m otion?

Since the research project deals w ith m odes of

understanding, qualitative m ethods w ere applied.

The m odel of educational reconstruction (Kattm ann et al,

1997, D uit et al, 2005) form s the fram ew ork of the

research project, w hich is based on a m oderate

constructivist epistem ological view . It closely links three

com ponents (Figure 1): analysis of science content

structure, in this case based on didactics (1); analysis of

childrens previous know ledge about the content, here

sim ple m achines (2); and the developm ent of (pilot)instruction com bining all findings (3).

A Circular Model of Thinking Processes as a Basis of TechnicalUnderstanding

Julia Menger, Faculty of Education, University of Oldenburg, Germany


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1. Analysis of content structure

To construct teaching units that support children in

understanding technical issues the content structure has to

be analysed from the current scientific point of view . The

topic Sim ple m achinesincludes various com ponents ofengineering m echanics. In this research project the

analysis of the content structure aim s to determ ine

childrens current understanding of scientific concepts,

law s and technical term s that form the basis of each

sim ple m achine. The physical background is only one

im portant factor in understanding the cause of lightening

the load w hile transporting a w eight via sim ple m achines.

By using m achines the hum an body is relieved of som e of

the burden of the load, so the second dom ain in the

scientific clarification is the physiology of the body. The

analysis of selected scientific publications provided

inform ation about the bodily processes during thetransportation. The educational analysis included, on the

one hand, studies concerning related contents (e.g.

general findings concerning technology education in

G rundschule (prim ary school) and, on the other, specific

findings concerning learning processes involving sim ple

m achines in H ochschule (secondary school). Additionally,curricula, school books, teaching m aterials and w eb pages

w ere analysed to gain a m eta-perspective of the scientific

clarification.

2. Empirical investigation of childrens previous

knowledge

For the investigation of the studentsperspective it w as

necessary to choose an open and m ulti-perspective

research design because of the com plexity of the topic

and the childrens age. The investigation w as com posed of

tw o phases where problem -solving situations (part A)

w ere com bined w ith cognitive thinking elem ents (part B).

A Circular M odel of Thinking Processes as a Basis of TechnicalU nderstanding

Figure 1. The model of educationa l reconstruction applied to simple machin es

clarification of basicconcepts concerning

simple machines

multi-perspectivesurvey

guidelines (basic principles)

modules of instruction

teaching methods content learning targets

construction of instruction

Part A:

group work(problem-orientated)

Part B: in terview(semi-structured)

1

3

2

analysis of empiricalstudies that are linked

to the topic

analysis of school books,internet pages, telecastsdealing with the topic

empirical investigation of childrens pre-knowledge

analysis of content structure


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Part A: Construction of simp le machines (problem -

oriented group work)After a short introduction the students w ere set a technical

problem . The task was to put a heavy bucket onto a box.

Several m aterials could be used to solve the problem (a

broom stick, a w ooden board, several rollers, a rolling

board, adhesive tape, m easuring tools, ropes, w edges, a

log). The children could freely use the m aterials as helpful

tools, as sim ple m achines w ere not provided. U sing the

m aterials should m ake transportation of the bucket easier

in com parison to transportation w ithout any assistance.

Throughout the problem -solving process, the pupils

engaged in discussion in order to test and im prove several

suggestions. The w ork w ith m aterials (unlike a solely

cognitive oriented research design) is of particularim portance here because the children observed

im m ediately if a suggestion did not w ork, w hich provided

self-evaluative feedback. The children could conduct

practical experim ents with sim ple m achines, decide on the

best com bination of the m aterials provided and determ ine

possible constructions, all at the sam e tim e. Thus this

phase provided the opportunity to activate the childrens

previous know ledge and the researcher w as able to

observe the childrens w ork. This provided insight into the

term s the children used w hile discussing their ideas and

the w ay they m ade use of the m aterials. After the group

arrived at a solution, each child m ade a sketch plus aw ritten description. In this w ay, the children organised and

structured their know ledge and the childrens technical

term s could be docum ented.

Part B: Semi-structured interview of the group

The observation process could be perceived as a general

probe, but to get to know som ething about the childrens

thinking processes and structures, a sem i-structured

interview w as necessary. Selective questions and stim uli

(concerning the m aterial choice, the m echanical

processes, analogies and relations to real life situations,

term s and so on) would encourage the pupils to explain

their concepts as to how the tools helped to m ake the

transportation of the bucket easier w hen the m ass w as the

sam e as before. Thus the pupils w ere forced to reflect on

the functionality of the sim ple m achines they had used.

They com pared their solutions; found parallels and

differences; and related these to their everyday-life.

3. Construction of instruction

Results of the analysis of the content structure (linking

clarification of the core concepts and analysis of the

educational significance) as w ell as prelim inary ideas for

the content of teaching units played an im portant role in

planning this em pirical study on teaching and learning. The

interactive com parison of the childrens previousknow ledge w ith the scientific content produced guidance

in term s of basic principles for teaching units that involve

sim ple m achines. Based on these guidelines, an on-going

longitudinal com parison enabled the developm ent of

teaching units that included teaching m ethods, content

and learning targets. Thus the analysis of the survey data

and its interactive com parison w ith the content structure

led to the design of teaching units that, hopefully, could be

expected to enhance technological education.

Pupils explanations of the functionality of selected

simple machinesA content analysis of the data show s recurrent them es in

different interview s, as show n in Figures 2-4.

Why does the load feel easier to move when its mass

stays the same?

It becom es apparent that all explanations are subjective,

objective or logical.Subjective explanationsalw ays refer to

an experience that pupils have already had, either shortly

before or in the m ore distant past. Tw o experiences are

show n in all interview s: team w ork is better than carrying a

w eight alone; relieving/helping the arm s (whether using


Figure 2. Conceptions of the functionali ty of a rolling boa rd

experience based/subjective explanation

Becausepushing is easy

it is lessexhaustingto the arms


because of therolls

becausethey rotate


because of therolling board

it carries theweight

material based/objective explanation

logical explanation


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m aterials to aid pushing or pulling or by using the

broom stick over the shoulder).

Objective explanationsinclude elem ents w hich are related

to the m aterial itself. It is either an observation (e.g. the

pupil realised that the balls under the rolling board rotate)

or a property (e.g. the pole is strong and thus you can

place it on your shoulder).

A characteristic elem ent oflogical explanationsis the

concept that the m aterial (the pole, w heel or the rolling

board) carries a part of the w eight. These explanations are

called logical because their core is a logical reasoning

w hich is connected to the team w ork concept: the pupils

have experienced an easing of the effort but they also

knew that the w eight w as still the sam e. So the pupils

transferred their team w ork experience, w here the w eight

w as divided into tw o or m ore parts, to this situation. The

logical conclusion in this case w as that the m aterial

substitutes the partner and carries a part of the w eight.

It w as apparent that the children often used the sam eargum ents w hen trying to explain the functionality of a

m achine. To fully understand the functionality of the

devices, subjective and objective aspects have to be

com bined (see figure 4). Pupils need to identify m aterial-

based and experience-based com ponents and relate them

to the problem . Som e explanations already contained

such connections or fragm ents of them . So the pupils

explanations and concepts form a good basis on w hich

learning can be built. It has to be w orked out during the

lessons in school that the connection of objective andsubjective com ponents is the key to understanding the

reason w hy the task becom es easier.

Circular model of thinking processes as an outcome of

the findings

The evaluation of the data reveals that the childrens

experience becom es param ount. W ithout experiencing the

lessening of the effort required to transport the w eight, the

children w ould be dependent on an abstract cognitive

understanding of the scientific content. W hile dealing w ith

concrete m aterial they can gain an aw areness of the

physiological relations w hich prom pts them to look closer,to observe and to reason. The children profited especially


Figure 3. Conceptions of the functiona lity of a fixed pul ley

Figure 4 . Conceptions of the functiona lity of a pole


Teamwork: Pulling togetheris easier than pul ling alone

Because ofthe rope

it rotates thewheel

thus youcan pull

The weight isshifted

on the wheel/ onthe rope


logical explanation


Teamwork: Carrying together iseasier than pul ling alone

Because of thepole

it is strong you can lay itover your shoulder

Because of thepole

it carries theweight


logical explanation

it is lessexhaustingto the arms


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by w orking together w ith their classm ates in sm all groups

because com m unication processes w ere generated

naturally. They needed to be aw are of their observations

before they could discuss, reflect and evaluate them .

Through these m ultiple acts of com m unication and

explanation, subjective and objective com ponents becam e

internalised and the children could discover new analogies

in their everyday life. They understood the core of all these

various situations, nam ely the basic principles of the

functionality, and developed an appreciation of the general

principles and scientific law s. Thus the concrete particular

case w as united w ith an overall context. W ithin this circular

m odel (Figure 6), technological thinking processes can be

initiated and extended, starting from the intuitive level

reaching the factual level, ending in the level of

technological awareness.

Learning by doing, reflecting and communicating

within the example of a teaching unit on simple

machines

The research results clearly indicate that it is possible and

m eaningful to teach such a com plex issue like sim ple

m achines. Regarding the pupilsexplanations and their

behaviour during the interview s w e can deduce basic

principles and m odules of a potential teaching unit

(Figure 7).

Three basic principles

1. Adequate tim e for pupilsactivities

Learning by doing is fundam ental to childrens learning

processes. Accordingly, lessons should give pupils tim e

and opportunities to discover and assim ilate (Soostm eyer,

2002). Therefore, w hen it com es to planning a teaching

unit on com plex ideas such as those underlying sim ple

m achines this principle is of particular im portance. This is

based on the fact that sim ple m achines are m echanical

aids and m echanics alw ays involves the com bination of

technical procedures and hum an perception. M any

m echanical processes are not noticeable by just observing

or thinking about them , but have to be perceived, like the

lightening of the load caused by sim ple m achines during

the transport of a heavy w eight, or the effect of differentm aterial properties. Thus it is very im portant to give pupils

the opportunity to act and experim ent w ith different

m aterials, devices and w eights.

2. Com m unicative processes

Children never learn silently. In com m unication, subject

know ledge can be structured and connected w ith different

insights (Kaiser, 2006). W hen experim enting w ith the

sim ple m achines, the childrens conversations w ere very

im portant. The evaluation of the data revealed that m ost

of the children had experiences and previous know ledge

about sim ple m achines. The learning target of a teachingunit should first be the structuring and developm ent of


Figure 5. Connection of subjective and objective components

pushing is easy

pulling instead of

carrying

beca

useof

thepole

itisstrong

the wheels rotate

the wheels rotate

you can lay it over

your shoulder

rolling board fixed pulley pole

itisless

exhaustingto

thearms

youcanuseyour

ownwe

ightwhen

youpull

itisless

exhaustingto

thearms

itisless

exhaustingto

thearms

youcanhandle

itwell

becauseofthe

rollers

becauseofthe

w

heel

becauseofthe

rope


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this know ledge, but in the long run also to develop the

understanding of the m echanical procedures. Looking at

the structure of the childrens concepts it appears that

children need aid w ith the correct connection of the singleelem ents. Then children can understand the functionality

of several sim ple m achines and they have a firm basis for

developing their understanding. To this purpose,

conversations in w hich teachers and pupils provide inputs,

and reflect upon and discuss each thought are

m eaningful. Effective classroom discussion only w orks w ith

good teacher guidance, otherw ise inadequate conceptions

could be reinforced (Kahlert, 2002).

3. Everyday language instead of technical languageD uring sm all group or w hole class discussion, it is

essential to use the childrens everyday language. The

pupils should be encouraged to describe precisely and

coherently. The focus m ust be on the issue, and not on

the technical language. The teacher talks and behaves in

these situations as som eone w ho thinks alongside the


Figure 6. Circular m odel of thin king p rocesses

Figure 7. Teaching prin ciples and modules

enlargement of technological

awareness

understanding

simple machines

explaining

simple machines

describing

simple machines

experiencing

simple machines

level of awareness

factual level

intuitive level

Basic principles

Teachingcontent

Learningtarget

reflection,

communication

action


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children (W agenschein, 1962, p. 132). The data reveal

that the childrens argum ents and explanations on sim ple

m achines w ere not opposed to technical language. The

notions used form ed a base for further learning therefore

it is neither necessary nor expedient to use technical

language in prim ary school lessons.

Teaching content

As show n by the data, the connection of subjective and

objective elem ents is im portant to understand the

functionality of the devices. Follow ing this result, lessons

should contain parts in w hich the pupils concentrate both

on the m aterial and on them selves, their experiences and

their bodily aw areness. Pupils can do this in a free w ay (for

instance, in problem -solving situations) or in a directed w ay(in structured learning environm ents). Both options should

be em braced in the lessons because both pursue different

aim s. In a problem situation pupils can gain shared

experiences w ith the transportation of a heavy w eight. They

can test different m ethods of using several m aterials and

discuss their different solutions. It is im portant to allow

pupils a free exploration of the problem because the

research has show n that som e pupils had no experience of

transporting a heavy w eight prior to the investigation. Those

w ho already had experience could rem em ber and structure

their previous know ledge w hile discussing w ith peers. After

this open-ended testing period the pupils had a good basisto reflect on the functionality of the m achines. This could

happen in a structured learning environm ent. The pupils

should concentrate either on the m aterial or on their body.

W ith special tasks focusing on observing the m aterials,

testing them and analysing their properties, the pupils can

understand the essential aspects of the m aterial-based

com ponents. These are supplem ented w ith experience-

based com ponents concerning the body and the body

aw areness as they could com pare different w ays of

transportation focusing on their bearing or their effort.

To understand the coherence betw een different m aterial-

based and experience-based com ponents, both

self-directed thinking and interactive thinking processes

should be encouraged in com m unicative exchanges

(Khnlein, 2001). Self-directed thinking could be initiated

by the pupils them selves (s/he observes som ething w hile

experim enting, is astonished and tries to fit the new

aspects into their available know ledge), or by the teacher

(s/he gives prom pts to look closely or to question

som ething). Pupils m ake up their m inds and com prehend

contexts intuitively. W hile com m unicating they prove, judge,

structure and reflect their thoughts and thus they m ove

forw ard their individual understanding processes. W hen

every pupil can convey everything s/he thinks about, thethoughts are com m unicated and pupils exchange their

ideas (W agenschein, 1962). So it should be the aim that

every pupil takes part in classroom conversations. It is the

collective w ork of teacher and pupils to reach this aim

(W agenschein, 1989); teacher and pupils have to perform

like a com m unicative team to succeed.

Summary

This investigation show s that it is possible and reasonable

to analyse com plex issues like sim ple m achines in prim ary

school. The com plexity of the issue should m otivate

teachers to consider the topics and connections that are

im portant for the pupils in their class. W hen a teaching unit

does not possess a specific focus it runs the risk that pupils

only learn the term inology, w ithout w holly understanding

the context of the issue. Pupils need a lot of tim e toobserve, think and talk; then and only then can they learn

to understand.

References

D uit, R. (2009).Bibliography STCSE: Students' and

Teachers' Conceptions and Science Education. Kiel: IPN .

D uit, R. et al, (2005). Tow ards science education research

that is relevant for im proving practice: The m odel of

educational reconstruction. In: H .E. Fischer, (Ed.)

Developing Standards in Research on Science Education.

London: Taylor & Francis, pp. 1-9.

Kahlert, J. (2002).Der Sachunterricht und seine Didaktik.

Bad H eibrunn: Klinkhardt.

Kaiser, A. (2006).Neue Einfhrung in die Didaktik des

Sachunterrichts. Baltm annsw eiler: Schneider.

Kattm ann, U . et al, (1997). D as M odell der D idaktischen

Rekonstruktion Ein Rahm en fr

naturw issenschaftsdidaktische Forschung und Entw icklung.

Zeitschrift fr Didaktik der NaturwissenschaftenJg. 3 H . 3,

pp. 3-18.

Khnlein, W . (2001). W as heit und w ie kann Verstehen

lehrengeschehen. In: J. Kahlert, E. Inckem ann (Eds.)

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ihrer Zusammenhnge im Sachunterricht. Bad H eilbrunn:

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M enger, J. (2007). Conceptions of Sim ple M achines and

their Functionality: A Study for the Enrichm ent of

Technology Education in Prim ary Schools. In C. Benson, S.

Law son, J. Lunt & W . Till (Eds.) 10 Years On, Sixth

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Soostm eyer, M ., (2002).Genetischer Sachunterricht.

Unterrichtsbeispiele und Unterrichtsanalysen zumnaturwissenschaftlichen Denken bei Kinder in

konstruktivistischer Sicht. Baltm annsw eiler: Schneider.

W agenschein, M ., (1962).Die pdagogische Dimension

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[email protected]


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