UIVERSITATEA DI BUCURETI FACULTATEA DE LIMBI I LITERATURI STRIE COALA DOCTORAL DE STUDII LITERARE I CULTURALE

TEZ DE DOCTORAT

- Rezumat -

Ortodoxia confucianist coreean din secolul al XVI-lea: idealul desvririi morale

Coordonator tiinific: Doctorand: Prof. dr. FLORETIA VIA DIAA YKSEL

Cuprins:

Introducere.

Justificarea demersului

Planul argumentaiei

Metodologie i termeni cheie

Capitolul 1: Baza paradigmei confucianiste: sistemul etic i educaia pentru

guvernarea moral

1.1. Sistemul etic confucianist i predispoziia spre adecvare social

1.2. Confucius i guvernarea moral

1.3. Mencius i natura uman

1.4. Xun Zi i guvernarea ideal

Capitolul 2: Renaterea neoconfucianist - schimbarea de paradigm

2.1. Contextul intelectual al revigorrii confucianiste din Song

2.2. Renaterea tradiiei confucianiste: paradigma neoconfucianist

2.3. Zhu Xi i sinteza strategic a neoconfucianismului

2.3.1. Constana paradigmei neoconfucianiste

2.3.2. Strategia mutaiei creatoare

2.4. Ecouri ale neoconfucianismului lui Zhu Xi n Occident

Capitolul 3: Verificarea paradigmei: transferul, receptarea i urmrile textelor

confucianiste n Coreea

3.1. Etapele ptrunderii i dezvoltrii confucianismului n Coreea

3.1.1. Perioada pre-Goryeo: funcia didactic a confucianismului

3.1.2. Confucianismul n primelesecole ale regatului Goryeo (877-1392)

3.1.3. Background-ul istoric i intelectual de la sfritul dinastiei Goryeo i

nceputul dinastiei Yi (Regatul Joseon)

3.1.4. Joseon - Neoconfucianismul ca baz politic, social i academic

3.2. Dezvoltarea filosofic a neoconfucianismului coreean (seongnihak) n secolul al

XVI-lea: etica metafizic i noul intelectual confucianist

Capitolul 4: Reformularea paradigmei: idealul desvririi morale - sinteza

neoconfucianist a lui Yi Hwang (Toegye)

4.1. Omul i crturarul Yi Hwang Toegye - model al desvririi intelectuale i

morale

4.2. Devenirea intelectual i ideile nnoitoare ale lui Toegye

4.3. nvtura nntru nelepciune seong hak (sheng xue)

4.3.1. Cultura seriozitii revereniale - gyeonghak / jingxue

4.3.2. Calea subiectivitii morale - shimhak ()

4.3.3. Etica aplicat interpretarea original a lui Toegye

Capitolul 5: Motenirea cultural a lui Yi Toegye discursul confucianist modern i

societatea coreean contemporan

5.1. Discursul confucianist modern

5.2. Confucianismul i societatea coreean contemporan

Concluzii

Bibliografie

Anexe

Rezumat: n studiul confucianismului n general cercetarea i explicarea calitii de model i

educator a intelectualului neoconfucianist constituie un element fundamental. Cu att mai

mult n cazul neoconfucianismului coreean. n Coreea, importul gndirii neoconfucianiste a

determinat schimbri profunde n viaa religioas, n filosofia i n climatul social din

perioada de decdere a regatului Koryo (918-1392) i a pus bazele apariiei noii ordini

socio-politice i culturale din timpul regatului Joseon1 (1392-1910). Una dintre urmrile

importante ale acestor schimbri a constat n administrarea i guvernarea rii de ctre

crturarii neoconfucianiti (yangban). Neoconfucianismul s-a rspndit mai apoi, pe filier

coreean, dar i direct din China, n Japonia, unde s-a impus ca un element important n

structura cultural i spiritual a acestei ri n secolele ei de izolare, nainte de deschiderea

ctre Occident.

Datorit acestei infiltrri sincrone i a evoluiei simultane a confucianismului n

zon adoptarea fr rezerve a neoconfucianismului de ctre societatea coreean este adesea

studiat n relaie cu confucianizarea parial a societii japoneze. Maruyama Masao2

definete procesul de confucianizare i urmrile lui din cele dou ri cu termenii "cultur-

torent" pentru Coreea i "cultur-pictur" pentru Japonia, referindu-se acceptarea total a

confucianismului n perioada regatului Joseon n structurile sociale, dar i n viaa

intelectual, academic n Coreea, i la rezistena n preluarea noului confucianism a

Japoniei, care de altfel nici nu a dezvoltat un sitem educaional la baza cruia s se afle

neoconfucianismul. Sinizarea Coreei i implicit tranziia spre o "modernitate timpurie" nu

a fost ns un proces att de simplu pe ct apare din percepia lui Maruyama i a fost

1 Din cauza lipsei unui stitem official de romanizare pn n anul 2000, n sursele occidentale regatul sau dinastia Joseon apare adesea i ca "Chosn", "Choson", "Chosun". Regatul Joseon a fost ntemeiat de generalul Yi Seong-gye, motiv pentru care n sursele istorice este numit uneori "dinastia Yi". 2 "I regard Korea as a flod-type culture and Japan as a leak-type culture. A flood-type society eventually collapses under the preassure being applied from an advanced civilization. [] Because in Japan the rain trickles from the ceiling, it does not completely collapse under the weight of rain, nor does it remain entirely unaffected." Maruyama Masao, Gengei koso shitsuyo teion, op. cit. n Miyajima Hiroshi, The Advent of the Japanese Early Modern Age within East Asia, Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies, vol 7, no. 2., oct. 2007, pag.37

posibil n Coreea doar n momentul n care au fost ntrunite anumite condiii socio-istorice,

i anume la finalul dinastiei Koryo (918-1392) ca rezultat al unei micri de reform din

interiorul societii coreene, iniiat de membrii ai clasei conductoare. Acetia reprezentau

tipul noului intelectual, n sprijinul societii, etalon al micrii neoconfucianiste coreene.

Noii crturari confucianiti din secolele XVI-XVII (Yi Hwang Toegye, Yi I Yulgok, Ki

Kobong) sunt cei datorit crora n peninsula coreean ortodoxia confucianist este pstrat

i devine doctrin (politico-social) de stat. De aceea, n demersul nostru de a analiza

transferul, receptarea i urmrile sintezei confucianiste n spaiul coreean, am ales ca

obiectiv central al investigaiei idealul umanist al desvririi morale - ideal aplicat de

neoconfucianitii coreeni att la nivel individual, ei nii devenind modele de etic i

adecvare social, ct i la nivel de grup social, reformarea guvernrii i a ntregii societi

prin aplicarea conceptelor etice confucianiste. Pentru aceasta, considerm c studiul

confucianismului coreean din secolul al XVI-lea, ca fenomen ce reprezint un punct de

cotitur n istoria Coreei, nu trebuie s se limiteze la o abordare restrictiv filosofic.

Dimpotriv, propunem adordarea confucianismului coreean din secolul al XVI-lea din

perspectiva mai larg a istoriei intelectuale.

Aceast propunere de abordare pornete de la observaia noastr c una dintre

problemele majore pentru studiile de confucianism o reprezint tocmai suprapunerea i

multitudinea de posibile perspective de abordare: istoric, social, filosofic, antropologic,

literar sau a studiilor religioase. Majoritatea studiilor tind s se dedice exclusiv uneia

dintre aceste perspective, reducnd astfel anvergura acestui fenomen cultural complex. n

Coreea, confucianismul este studiat n mediile academice din perioada colonialist

japonez (1910-1945), cnd pentru prima dat a devenit obiect de studiu n sine

(yuhak ). De aceea, studiul confucianismului coreean n secolul al XX-lea este profund

influenat de modelul japonez din perioada de ocupaie, la rndul lui marcat de problemele

specifice de la nceputul secolului XX din Asia de Est. Japonia, care a antrenat n acest nou

tip de studiu China i Coreea, a ncercat s adopte un model academic occidental pentru

interpretarea sistemului etico-filosofic autohton cu scopul de a dobndi recunoatere i

respect. Astfel au fost create termenul i categoria academic a filosofiei - tetsugaku

(jeolhak/ zhi xue), iar confucianismul a dobndit statutul de disciplin academic, o

subclas a respectabilei discipline a filosofiei. Pe baza acestui model, sistemele academice

n (trans)formare de la nceputul secolului XX din China, Coreea i Japonia au reclasificat

i redefinit confucianismul ca filosofie, fapt ce a atras mai trziu o serie de critici, n special

din partea cercettorilor din Occident3 care vedeau n aceasta o reducere a ntregii tradiii

confucianiste la o teorie abstract, erudit, n care background-ul socio-istoric i

antropologic este neglijat. Recunoscnd apartenena studiilor de confucianism la domeniul

mai cuprinztor al studiilor umaniste sau al tiinelor sociale, se ncearc n studiile

ultimilor ani (n special cele din Occident) cercetarea textelor confucianiste ca parte a unui

fenomen social i istoric, ca parte a procesului de creare a mentalului colectiv, nu doar ca

glosar de concepte filosofice ce se adreseaz cu exclusivitate unui public de specialiti.

Totui, n Coreea, abordarea filosofic rmne principala metod de studiu, ceea ce are ca

neajuns uniformitatea i repetitivitatea prezentrilor. n lipsa unei abordri interdisciplinare

i a unui studiu cros-cultural, o asemenea abordare exclusiv filosofic ia adesea forma unei

succesiuni de concepte i sisteme filosofice rupte de contextele istorico-sociale n care s-au

dezvoltat. Decontextualizarea i abordarea dintr-o perspectiv unic (cea filosofic, de

exemplu), duce la o anumit ariditate a interpretrii ce obstrucioneaz nelegerea

confucianismului n complexitatea sa. De aceea demersul nostru are ca scop realizarea unei

analize mai profunde a semnificaiei textelor confucianiste din perioada regatului Joseon,

cu aplicaie pe scrierile lui Yi Hwang Toegye ( 1501-1570). Motivaia acesteri

circumscrieri const n faptul c n perioada de nceput a dinastiei Joseon crturarii

confucianiti au fost nu doar implicai n studii ermetice sau dispute scolastice, ci au fost i

ageni dinamici n procesul de transformare socio-politic al vremii. De aceea, o importan

primordial n cadrul acestui studiu va fi acordat dimensiunii etice a gndirii crturarului

confucianist coreean, dimensiune ce se ncadreaz att n linia clasic a ortodoxiei

neoconfucianiste caracterizat de preocuparea preponderent pentru metafizic, dar se

dezvolt i ntr-o direcie proprie prin preocuparea spre practicarea i aplicarea conceptelor

filosofice. Este vorba despre un model nou de etic metafizic, pe care o vom numi etica

aplicat.

3 Martina Deutchler, Anne Cheng, Boudewjin Walraven.

n lucrrile de filosofie etic confucianist discuia nu se limiteaz niciodat doar la

problema subiectului. Acesta este mereu definit de rolul su social, iar scopul lui etic

devine ndeplinirea ct mai corect a acestui rol. Pentru a aduce lmuriri asupra eticii

sociale i a problemei reciprocitii confucianiste am apelat la etica propus de Emanuel

Lvinas, la "atenia acordat celuilalt". Esena teoriei desvririi de sine la Toegye este

cultivarea minii-inim (xin ) prin seriozitate reverenial (jing ) i practica virtuii

omeniei (ren ), astfel c atunci cnd omul i poate controla interesul personal i

inteniile egoiste, poate s se raporteze corect, poate "s-l gndeasc pe cellalt".

Pentru a putea nelege confucianismul coreean de la nceputul regatului Joseon,

vom apela la tradiia confucianist clasic i la exegeza ei pn n contemporaneitate, dar i

la contribuii metodologice occidentale, interdisciplinare, ncercnd o obordare de tipul

istoriei intelectuale, care s ne permit explorarea confucianismului, cu implicaiile sale la

nivelul culturii, mentalitii, eticii, metafizicii i istoriei n Peninsula Coreea, la nceptul

secolului al XVI-lea. Considerm c acest model de abordare interdisciplinar este totdat

cel mai potrivit i pentru a reliefa rolul social al crturarului confucianist i implicaiile lui

n dezvoltarea gndirii filosofice, sociale i politice din aria cultural a Asiei de Est.

Profitnd de deschiderea oferit de o abordare din perspectiva istoriei intelectuale,

propunem o analiz a confucianismului nu doar ca element cu dezvoltare local, ci ca

fenomen general, specific ntregii arii culturale a Asiei de Est, ce a avut urmri n cultura i

societatea coreean, deopotriv cu cea chinez, care este n postura de surs i cu cea

japonez, care la un moment dat a fost n postura de receptor (Ito Jinsai, Yamazaki Ansai,

Hayashi Razan, etc.)

innd cont de faptul c n secolul al XVI-lea confucianitii coreeni dezvolt o

sintez proprie n continuarea ortodoxiei confucianiste, reconstruind-o ntr-un model

preluat n Japonia, ne propunem s demonstrm c acest proces echivaleaz nu doar cu o

simpl "confucianizare a Coreei" (Martina Deutchler 4 ), dar i o coreeanizare a

confucianismului (mai ales n lucrrile gnditorilor Toegye i Yulgok), a variantei sale

neoconfucianiste, care a pstruns etapizat n Coreea n perioada dinstiilor Song (960-1279)

4 Martina Deuchler, The Confucian Transformation of Korea. A Study of Society and Ideology, Harvard University Press, 1992

i Ming (1368-1644) din China i s-a cristalizat n perioada dinastiei Joseon (1392-1910)

din Coreea.

Pstrm o abordare din perspectiv filosofic a operei lui Toegye i analizm

aspectul teoretic al gndirii lui, dar ncercm n acelai timp i s nelegem caracterul

culturii n cadrul creia s-a nscut. O astfel de nelegere a confucianismului duce la

lrgirea perspectivei i este relevant n opinia noastr pentru studiul academic, constituind

n acelai timp i o baz de analiz pentru confucianismul prezent i viitor.

Corpusul principal de texte supuse analizei este constituit din colecia de opere

complete ale lui Yi Hwang-Toegye: Toegye jeonseo (Toegye - Opere complete),

n 27 volume, din care ne-am oprit mai ales asupra volumelor 1-5, 7 i 25-26. O atenie

deosebit este acordat lucrrii Zece diagrame ale nvturilor nelepte (seonghak shipdo

), o colecie de nvturi etice, ultima lucrare a lui Yi Hwang. De asemenea,

pentru identificarea caracteristicilor generale ale neoconfucianismului i pentru conturarea

backgroundului filosofic am apelat la colecia Zhu zi da quan (Zhu Xi - Opere

complete), precum i la textele canonice confucianiste : (Confucius: Analecte),

Mengzi , Xunzi , Daxue (Marea nvtur) i Zhong yong (Mijlocul

invariabil).

Teza este organizat pe o structur ce cuprinde cinci capitole, introducere, concluzii

i anexe ce cuprind o parte a traducerilor din textele analizate. Capitolul 1 al tezei se

constituie ntr-o prezentare a sistemului etic confucianist i a idealului desvririi morale

individuale, aa cum a fost conturat de printele confucianismului, Confucius (551-

479 .Hr.). Accentul cade pe rolul i rspunderea crturarului confucianist ce devine model

de comportament etic, precum i pe importana acordat de guvernrii etice. Este analizat

i importana pe care Confucius o acord educaiei i comportamentului ritualic n

cultivarea virtuilor individuale i a relaionrii sinelui cu ceilali (societatea). Este

cercertat i perspectiva gnditorului confucianist Mencius (372-289 .Hr.) asupra

naturii umane, perspectiv ce a avut o influen major n dezvoltarea ideilor eticii

metafizice neoconfucianiste, deopotriv cu teoria practicii ritualice i a normelor sociale

dezvoltate de Xun Zi (312-230 .Hr.). n acest capitol se propune i o localizare a

conceptelor fundamentale n sistemul de gndire confucianist, precum i o ncadrare a lor

ntr-un sistem al eticii metafizice globale.

n capitolul 2 al tezei sunt conturate caracteristicile neoconfucianismului, pornind

de la momentul renaterii tradiiei confucianiste din timpul dinastiei Song. Este subliniat

faptul c noua viziune confucianist s-a realizat prin reinterpretarea tradiiei confucianiste

(ale crei idei fundamentale sunt prezentate n primul capitol) i nu prin mprumutarea unei

structuri strine (aa cum era perceput budismul n epoc). Este semnalat evoluia

conceptele fundamentale n operele a patru crturari emblematici ai micrii filosofice

neoconfucianiste Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073), Zhang Zai (1020-1077), Cheng

Hao(1032-1085) i Cheng Yi (1033-1107), dar studiul de baz este realizat pe

opera neoconfucianistului Zhu Xi (1130-1200), oper ce reprezint o sintez ce

reunete ntr-o viziune unitare contribuiile celor patru crturari confucianiti amintii.

Demersul intelectual al lui Zhu Xi reia caracteristica de baz a neoconfucianismului,

repsectiv nnoirea prin ntoarcerea la tradiie.

Capitolul 3 se constituie ntr-o studiu cuprinztor al etapelor ptrunderii

confucianismului n Peninsula Coreea, al modului n care s-a realizat transferul de concepte

i valori culturale i etico-sociale i al urmrilor pe care acest transfer l-a avut n discursul

socio-filosofic din Coreea, n special n timpul dinastiei Joseon - perioada de conturare a

neoconfucianismului coreean. Sunt analizate i subliniate funciile pe care gndirea

confucianist le-a avut n societatea coreean ncepnd cu funcia didactic, din perioada

regatelor Silla (57 . Hr. 935 d. Hr.), Baekje (18 .Hr. 660 d. Hr.) i Silla unificat (688-

935) i continund cu funcia socio-politic din timpul regatului Koryo (918-1392) pentru a

ajunge la importana confucianismului ca baz politic, social i academic din perioada

regatului Joseon. Tot n acest capitol este analizat i dezvoltarea filosofic a

neconfucianismului coreean din secolul al XVI-lea i este subliniat apariia noului tip de

intelectual confucianist, ce pune n aplicare viziunea eticii metafizice. Una dintre sarcinile

primare ale noului intelectual confucianist era reluarea ideii centrale n confucianism

conform creia omul este n armonie cu universul, idee comun curentelor concurente de

gndire din Asia de Est: confucianismul, daoismul, budismul. Discursul consmologic se

contura pe baza tezei fundamentale a integrrii microcosmosului n macrocosmos i

implicit pe interelaionare n triada cer-om-pmnt. Gndirea filosofic neoconfucianist

readuce n prim plan problema punerii omului i a societii n armonie cu principiile

dominante ale universului (tai qi ) i a integrrii manifestrii naturii umane n noima

universal dao. n lmurirea rolului noului filosof confucianist artm c n locul unei

interiorizri absolute sau a unei retrageri din lumea obiectiv 5 , postulatul

neoconfucianitilor era posibilitatea interaciunii armonioase ntre polaritile existeniale,

interaciune care n final s duc la integrarea n procesul cosmic. Concluzia la care

ajungem n finalul acestui capitol este c potrivit tradiiei confucianiste, forele cosmice i

etice transcend categoriile limitative, astfel c nu exist o separare a lumilor ntr-una fizic

i una moral i prin urmare etica metafizic este pe deplin legitim.

n capitolul 4 este prezentat i analizat sinteza confucianist elaborat de

gnditorii coreeni. Sunt investigate motivele i metodele folosite de Yi Hwang

Toegye (1501-1570), cel mai reputat neoconfucianist coreean din secolul al XVI-

lea (pentru a-i justifica teoria unui dualism special ntre Principiul li i suportul de

materie qi ) i sunt subliniate caracteristicile filosofiei morale a lui Toegye. Pe de o

parte este urmrit modul n care Toegye a rezolvat o parte dintre criticile aduse de

contemporanii si teoriei dualismului li-qi, i contribuia filosofului coreean la nelegerea

operei maestrului Zhu Xi. Pe de alt parte, identificm noile direcii n dezvoltarea

neoconfucianismului coreean determinate de argumentaiile lui Toegye i de interpretarea

dat de acesta operei zhuxiene. Un exemplu n acest sens fiind constituit de teoria monist a

lui Yulgok, conform creia suportul de materie domin Principiul. n final este conturat

ideea principal a capitolului, i anume faptul c sistemul etic al confucianistului Yi Toegye

este un punct de referin i de jonctur n dezvoltarea confucianismului coreean, dar i n

maturizarea gndirii confucianiste ca sistem de gndire al ntregii Asii de Est, aa cum

sinteza lui Zhu Xi reprezint baza neoconfucianismului n general.

Capitolul 5 urmrete traspunerea viziunii asupra eticii metafizice a gnditorului

neoconfucianist Toegye n discursul confucianist contemporan precum i implicaiile sale

5 Soluii propuse de buditi.

n transformarea continu a confucianismului de la concepia premodern pn la vizuinea

modern asupra lumii i a vieii care, n opinia multor cercettori occidentali, contribuie la

transformarea modernitii.

Teza se ncheie cu concluziile care reiau reperajul temei umanismului confucianist

i a menirii supreme a omului dreptul i ndatorirea de a-i cultiva dimensiunea personal

pentru a performa adecvat n societate. Totodat se subliniaz importana contribuiei

gnditorului neoconfucianist coreean Toegye i se clarific/ reiau elementele originale

aduse de acesta.

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