41_pdfsam_ Ravi Paturi Thesis

8/12/2019 41_pdfsam_ Ravi Paturi Thesis

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4.4.1.1.1 Time Orientation

Every culture makes assumptions about the nature of time and has a basis orientation toward the

past, present or future (Redding & Martyn Jones, 1979). Understanding a groups assumptions

about time allows us to know the culture of that group from a better perspective. Time is one such

commodity that is totally at the disposal of individual, but to a large extent either wrongly utilized or

under utilized. Time cannot be stored and has to be spent. But, at the same time it is not

retrievable, thus making it a scarce commodity.

The time orientation has critical relationship to how an individual looks at his / her work activities

(past, present and future). Acoording to Sied (1995), the individuals with past orientation tend to

put off today what they can do tomorrow and as a result, spend lot of time responding to crisis or

deadlines that pop up suddenly. . In contrast, the individuals with future orientation take charge of

the day and accomplish what they set out do. Knowledge of time orientation can provide us with

insights into the importance that individuals give to deadlines, whether long term planning is widely

practiced the length of job assignments, and what constitutes lateness. Kanungo (1994) feels, most

individuals life physically in the present, but psychologically in the past, and are unconcerned about

the future. Emphasis on the past and a lack of futuristic orientation leads to lack of planning while

achieving the goals. Thus, jobs are handled as they come up, and problems are seldom anticipated

well ahead of time for making adequate preparation to solve them. Without prior preparation to

solve anticipated problems, most solving behaviour is chaotic, unplanned and unorganized. Making

the unpredictable and uncontrollable economic and political environment existing in the developed

countries responsible. Kanungo (1994) says the time orientation in these countries accentuates a

past and present orientation, and the action focus requires a short-term perspective (Triandis,

1984). Kluckhon and Strodtbeck (1961), in their comparative study of several cultures, found that

some were predominantly orientated toward past (traditional China), some toward the present

(Spanish Americans in the United States South East), and some toward near future (contemporary

United States).

4.4.1.1.1.1 Time Orientation and its Consequences

Large amount of research is already done on the time orientation and its impact on individuals

(personality, values and behaviour) and also on organizations (reward systems, performance, etc.).

Frederickson, Charles G (1988) examined the relationship between measures of temporal

orientation (past, present, and future) and pace and their influence on behaviours. Results

demonstrate the importance of both successive and durative components in determining temporal

influences on behaviour.


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4.4.1.1.2 Age Variations and Time Orientation

Dawson, Kim A (1992) tested the hypothesis that as biological age increases, important psychological

experiences may simultaneously collect in the past and be removed from the future. Age was

positively related to the number of distant past experiences recalled by the college students.

4.4.1.1.3 Time Orientation Construct

Nuri, Jari-Erik (1982) discusses problems of time and future from the viewpoint of cognitive

psychology and the theory of action. Empirical research on the individuals time orientation and

future orientation involves 2 problems: (1) The concept of time orientation in ambiguous, and (2)

methods of measurement display a large variation from one study to another. It is suggested that

human time orientation is developed in relation to cognitive activities resulting in the elaboration of

motives and values into temporally structured goals, plans, and strategies. The ideal objects of

motives and values involve a future-orientation.

4.4.1.1.4 Operational Definiton of Time Orientation

For the purpose of present study, time orientation is defined in the following way.

Time orientation is the tendency of individual/s to attribute significance to either past or future.

4.4.1.2 Reward Orientation

As discussed in the last chapter, subscribe of the individual and the dependents (family) in one of the

critical meanings that individual derives from work. Apart from subsistence, individual desires thathis work to be recognized. Reward is a form of recognition or worth of an activity. Rewards may

be in the economic and non-economic forms. But, reward plays a significant role in the

organizations, as it is one of the powerful tools in the hands of management to motivate employees.

Individuals may have different expectations about rewards from the work activities carried out by

them. The disposition about rewards of different kinds is what is called as reward orientation.

Apart from some significant research on the needs of individuals (Maslow, 1954; Herberg, 1966), in

last few decades, specific researches (Adams 1965; Lawler, 1971; Dyer and Parker, 1976; Guzzo,

1976; Kanungo and Hartwick, 1987) were conducted to analyze the reward orientation of individuals

and its effect on organizations. Herzberg popularized two-factor theory (1966) consisting of:

Intrinsic rewards (autonomy, recognition and challenging assignments) and Extrinsic rewards (pay,

benefits and praise from the supervisor or boss).


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4.4.1.2.1 Reward Orientation and Age

A large number of studies conducted in this area prove the point that Younger people tend to give

more importance to extrinsic rewards whereas the older generation is more inclined towards

intrinsic rewards.

4.4.1.2.2 Reward Orientation and Sex

The research studies conducted on reward orientation have varies results. According to Singh,

Satvir (1994) the women appeared to be more interested in making money, more involved in their

work, more enthusiastic, more socially bold, more opinionated, and more tense. The men were

more interested in seeking higher level jobs and a better standard of living, more aware of social

status, more emotionally stable, more assertive, more experimental, more socially precise, and more

autonomous. According to de Vaus, David; McAllister, lan (1991) who measured intrinsic and

extrinsic work orientations of men and women concluded that the women are more intrinsically

oriented that their male counterparts.

4.4.1.2.3 Reward Orientation and Educational Background

Studies by Brenner (1996) reveal that generally people with higher qualifications show a greater

desire for intrinsic job aspects, independence and the opportunity to perform managerial activities.

According to him these men looked towards attaining status, money, than their female counterparts

looked towards recognition.

4.4.1.2.4 Operational Definition of Reward Orientation

In the present study, reward orientation was defined as: Individuals preference for either intrinsic or

extrinsic rewards.

4.4.1.3 System Salience

System or the organization of which the individuals is a part decides the critical relationship the

individual has with the system or the organization. An individuals understanding about the relation

that one has with the system has critical dimensions as to how the individual works in the

organization. Individuals may fall in two broad categories, the ones who believe individual as

dominant or primordial and the other system as primordial to individual. Tonnies (1968) has come

out with a typology of individuals, whether they are Geminishaft (low individualism) or Geselleschaft

(high individualism): Hofstede Geert (1980) based on his research on culture across nations has

come out with a typology of individualism and collectivism. According to Hoftede (1980), the

norm prevalent in a given society as to the degree of individualism / collectivism expected from its

members will strongly affect the nature of relationship between a person and the organization to

which he or she belongs.


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The concepts of individualism or collectivism are based on self-concept. Parsons and Shils (1951)

describe individualism as orientation to self and collectivism as orientation to common goals and

objectives. According to them the high frequency in which there is a disharmony of interests

creates the problem of choosing between action for private goals on behalf of collective goals.

Merton (1968) came out with a similar typology as individualism / collectivism. Merton

differentiates between locals versus cosmopolitans. According to him, the local type is largely

preoccupied with problems inside the organization and cosmopolitan maintains a minimum set of

relations with the organization.

The present study is taking up the typology of individual salience versus system salience. Individual

salience is the importance the individual attaches to himself or herself in contrast to the importance

he or she attaches to the system. System here cannotes organization.

4.4.1.3 Operational Definition of System Salience

In the present study system salience is defined as the relative importance that an individual

attributes to the system / organization against the individual (including himself) towards the

sustenance of the organization / system.

4.4.1.4 Locus of Control

Locus of control I s the third dimension chosen for this study, and which forms part of the

assumptions of individuals related to work. Individuals beliefs about the controllability of what

happens to them is a core element of their understanding of how they life in the world (Shapiro,

Schwartz, & Astin, 1996). Locus of control discusses the individuals belief regarding what controls

s/he, whether inside the self (internals locus of control or internality) or outside the self (external

locus of control or externality). The review of literature on this concept gives us a distinct

ideological favour towards internal locus of control. In fact, Rotter (1975) cautioned practitioners to

avoid falsely assuming that characteristics of individuals with an internal locus of control are all

positive and qualities of individuals with an external locus of control are all negative. This caution

notwithstanding, research and practice in the area has been biased by the popular assumption that a

belief in internal control is more desirable than a belief in external control (Evans, Shapiro, & Lewis,

1993; Furby, 1979).

4.4.1.4.1 Socio-cultural Influences on the Concept

According to Lawrence I Marks (1998) western culture has always place a high value on personal

autonomy, and this value has influenced the development of the locus of control concept. In turn,

the continued concentration within psychology on personal control is parallel to societys

preoccupation with independence (Furby, 1979; Stam, 1987). Embedded in Rotters concept is the


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Protestant ethic, which argues that there is a correlation between hard work and social

achievement. It is an ethic of individual effort and has little if anything to say about external,

structural impediments to achievement (Sampson, 1983). Indeed, researchers have shown

internality to be related to the Protestant ethic and traditional American values (Fink & Hjelle, 1973;

Mirels & Garrett, 1971; Rotter, 1975). This bias is resounded in Lefcourts (1982) assertion, Man

must come to be more effective and more able to perceive himself as the determiner of his fate if he

is to life comfortable with himself. Furthermore, Wong and Sproule (1984) contended, Since the

early 1960s, control psychologists have been busy demonstrating the importance of internal

control. Their main practical concern is how to enhance a persons belief in self-efficacy or internal

control (p. 354). The emphasis on internality served to reinforce and perpetuate the unchanging

view of and assumptions about locus of control.

According to Gurin, Gurin and Morrison (1978), the bias toward internality was present in the

1960s as locus of control attained a distinction with the rise in new social programs and

interventions. Belief in external control was viewed as a potentially critical problem among the

lower socioeconomic and minority groups who were the primary targets of these intervention

(Gurin et al., 1978). In fact, these authors asserted that it is simply a coincidence that Rotters lucus

of control concept (and scale) became avaialbe at the same time social scientists were interested in

the role of powerlessness in certain societal phenomena. A more appropriate measure may have

assessed individuals ideological control (described below), a distinct aspect of external locus of

control. Explaining social problems from a control perspective placed responsibility for managing

social problems in the hands of those who perceived themselves as having more power, or an

internal locus of control. Those who could provide opportunities eventually developed programs

for those with physical handicaps, for those in minority groups, and for individuals with other

disadvantages (Lefcourt, 1992).

Driven by the belief that internality is more desirable than externality, researchers have continually

found confirming evidence for their hypotheses. For example, Duke and Nowicki (1974) reported

internality in male college juniors to be positively related to achievement. Nowicki and Duke (1983)

saw a theme in their sample of research that internality and positive social characteristics were

related. Internal locus of control for academic achievement was positively related to achievement

scores for a sample of school children, even when controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and

ethnicity (Young & Shorr, 1986). According to a review by Renn and Vandenberg (1991),

employees with an internal locus of control were rated higher than those with an external locus of

control on important job variables, such as performance or satisfaction. Even among mental health

professional, those with a greater sense of internal beliefs reported higher satisfaction with their jobs

and life and expected more favourable outcomes for their clients (Koeske & Kirk, 1995).


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4.4.1.4.2 Locus of Control and Gender Differences

A large number of studies (Kunhikrishna, K; Stephen, P.S, 1992; Lee VictoriaL; Dengerink, Harold A,

1992; Peter B Smith; Shaun Dugan; Fons Trompenaars, 1997; Kuther, Tara L, 1998) conducted to

analyze the differences in locus of control based one differences in gender have got varied results

based on cultural and national differences. Overall women are found with more externality than

their male counterparts.

4.4.1.4.3 Experience & its Relationship with Locus of Control

According to the meta-analysis of 12 studies conducted to determine the cumulative relationship

between locus of control and tenure among teachers by Sadowski, Cyril J (1993) longer tenure was

moderately associated with an internal locus of control orientation.

4.4.1.4.4 Locus of Control & Extrinsic and Intrinsic Needs

The existing research (Cravens & Worchel, 1977; Dailey, 1978; Spector, 1992; Feehan, Gregory G.;

Enzle, Michael E, 1991) on locus of control and its relationship with the intrinsic and extrinsic

motivating factors suggests that extrinsic needs are associated with external locus of control.

4.4.1.4.5 Locus of Control and Time Orientation

Brannigan, Gary G.; Shahon, Amy J.; Schaller, Juli A. (1992) Results support the hypothesis that

externals are more past oriented than internals.

4.4.1.4.6 Locus of Control and Job SatisfactionStudies (Tarver, David; Canada, Richard, Lim, Mee-gaik, 1999) conducted in the area of

understanding a relationship between locus of control and job and work satisfaction suggested of a

strong positive correlation between internality and satisfaction with the job or work.

4.4.1.4.7 Locus of Control and Indian Studies

According to Kanungo (1994), in India across organizations individuals suffer from high externality

which are acquired primarily through socialization practices related performance non-contingent

reward allocation in the family, school, work organization or other social institutions. Kanungo also

feels that because of high externality individuals tend to become insecure and demonstrate a strong

need for dependence on other to alleviate their feeling of insecurity.


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4.4.1.4.8 Conceptualization of Locus of Control

The design of studies of locus of control and subsequent interpretations or results by researchers

and practitioners are influenced by differing conceptualizations of the construct. Probably the most

variability in conceptualization comes from the different dimensions that have been hypothesized

concerning locus of control. Initially, Rotter (1966) conceived locus of control as being

multidimensional; howere, later her operationalzed locus of control as being unidimensional. He did

not look for other factors empirically because previous findings yielded only one factor (Coombs &

Schroeder, 1988). Assessing the multidimensionality of locus of control is supported by factor

analyses of lucus of control scales (e.g., Coombs & Schroeder, 1988; Ganellen & Blaney, 1984; Garza

& Widlak, 1977; Lefcourt, 1982; Mirels, 1970). In general, these studies have revealed more than

one factor and have revealed that certain factors (i.e., aspects of external control) may be better

predictors of specific dependent variables.

A current multidimensional view is Levensons (1974, 1981; Levenson & Miller, 1976) separation of

external beliefs into control by powerful others and fate or chance control. According to Ganellen

and Blaney (1984), Levenson followed other investigators who suggested separating external control

into dimension of powerful others and chance or luck. In fact, Rotter et al. (1962) had previously

suggested that there are four kinds of beliefs in external control: belief that events occur because of

luck or chance, belief that events occur because of fate, belief that events are controlled by powerful

others, and belief that the world is too complex to be predicted. Levenson (1974, 1981)

hypothesized that beliefs in control by powerful others lead to different thoughts and behaviours

than beliefs in control by chance. According to Levensons (1981) conceptualization, externality

may reflect a belief in control by powerful others that may express a genuine appraisal of certain

sociopolitical situations and not a maladjusted personality. For example, after a period of

democratization in Poland, Polish university students scored slightly more internal or over all locus

of control, and significantly more internal on a political control subscale compared to a matched

sample of Polish students surveyed before the political changes began (Tobacyk, 1992). Thus,

studies that use Rotters (1966) unidimensional scale may be missing important factors that could be

revealed with Levensons scale. Similar multi dimensional approach towards locus of control is

taken by Pareek (1996) who after factor analyses of his 31 item scale found that the external locus of

control combines together two dimensions, namely chance and others.

A useful conceptualization of locus of control is provided by Gurin et al (1978; Gurin, Gurin, Lao, &

Beattie, 1969) who proposed a differentiation between personal control, which refers to individuals

beliefs about the potential for control in their society at large. Gurin et al. (1978) found that this

distinction was made by all of their samples and was especially prominent in individuals of lower

socioeconomic status and in African Americans. Specifically, they insisted that these groups high


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external scores were a function of personal control beliefs resulting from their experience with

discrimination, not their beliefs about the effect of a persons effort in society. Gurin et al (1987)

argued that scores of greater externality on measures of locus of control among minority groups

were incorrectly altered, when in fact their sense of low personal control reflected a correct

perception of a harsh environment over which they had control. That is, early evaluations did not

distinguish between personal and ideological aspects of control; thus, it was not possible to

demonstrate which factors actually accounted for the observed differences in external control.

In their examination of locus of control, Wong and Sproule (1984) offered valueable contributions to

this literature. First, they noted the importance of realism and idealism. When locus of control was

assessed, respondents reality considerations tended to account for external scores and their ideals

seemed to underlie internal scores. Second, the authors conceptualization of locus of control

involved a dual dimensional view. Dual control, or shared responsibility, was described in terms of

internal and external control compared with internal versus external control. They labeled the

unstudied group of individuals who understand control to be from both internal and external

sources as bilocals. That is, bilocals are individuals who strike a healthy balance between their

beliefs in internal and external control. Although individuals falling in the middle of the locus of

control continuum were distinguished as a notable group by Roter et a. (1962), the possible

meaningfulness of this group has been largely ignored. Wong and Sproule (1984) hypothesized that

bilocals cope more effectively because they observe an optimal mix between personal responsibility

(internal control) and faith in appropriate outside resources (external control). Emphasizing the

importance of both internal and external aspects of control instead of focusing only on the benefits

of being internal or the distresses associated with being external is a sensible alternative to prevailing

views of locus of control.

With this multidimensional focus has come the perspective that to have external control beliefs is

not necessarily dysfunctional. An external belief may be derived from powerful others, in which a

potential for control exists, as opposed to chance, as in Levensons (1981) description. Similarly,

Guin et als (1978) personal control, in which the individual is making accurate judgments about

situations as opposed to ideological control, may account for an external belief moreover, bilocals

may be better adjusted than controllers (those with internal control beliefs) and controllers (those

with external control beliefs) in many ways (Wong & Sproule, 1984). Alternatively, an external

locus of control may be reflecting cultural values or beliefs as described above. Having an external

locus of control may be an effective or adaptive way of believing and functioning in certain situations

or cultures.


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In an interesting analysis of control in Americal and Japanese cultures, Weisz et al. (1984) offered a

distinction between primary and secondary control. In primary control, individuals influence

existing realities, whereas in secondary control, individuals accommodate to existing realities.

Weisz et al. described forms of secondary control: predictive (preparing for future events and their

impact), vicarious (enchancing ones sense of control by aligning with powerful others), illusory

(enhancing acceptance of chance of fate), and interpretive (altering perspectives of reality in order to

understand the meaning of events). They demonstrated the emphasis on primary control in

American-Western culture and the reliance on secondary control in Japanese culture, and they

noted both positive and negative connotations of each from of control in the cultures. Primary

control in America, for example, was associated with autonomy and self-expression, but also

self-absorption and loneliness. Secondary control in Japan was associated with self-discipline and

attentiveness but also with excessive conformity and oversensitivity. The parallel between primary

and secondary and internal and external is evident. Primary and internal control places the person

as having responsibility for acting on the einvorioment. Secondary and external control has the

person adjust to being acted upon by the environment. Although Weisz et al. suggested that both

forms of control are important, they did not escape the Western bias discussed earlier. Labeling

external control as secondary seems to connote an inferior way of being (Shapiro et at., 1996).

A final and important consideration for practitioners with respect to the conceptualizations of locus

of control is whether it is used as a generalized expectancy or applied in specific situations. Rotter

(1966) noted the worth of developing precise measures for specific situations, especially in practical

applications. Using measures tailored for certain populations with special concerns is preferable for

maximizing predictions rather than using global assessments (Lefcourt, 1982, 1991; Rotter, 1975).

Schulz, Heckhausen, and Locker (1991) suggested that generalized locus of control remains relatively

stable over the life course, but perceptions of control over specific domains may change (cf Gatz &

Karel, 1993).

4.4.1.4.8 Operational Definition of Locus of Control

The present study considers locus of control as a unidimensional concept and the following

operational definition is arrived at.: locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or

failure either to oneself or to causes outside the self.

4.4.2 Values

According to operation definition of work culture in this study, values form the second layer of

work culture. Thus, values regarding work aspects a group of individuals within an organization or

across organizations are supposedly are formed on the basis of the basic assumptions discussed

above and many more. According to Schein (1985) all cultural learning ultimately reflects


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someones original values, their sense of what ought to be as distinct from what is. Table 4.1.

gives number of definitions of values.

TABLE 4.1

DEFINITIONS OF VALUES

Author Definitions

Klukhohn, 1951 Value as a conception of what is desirable or implicit, distinctive

characteristic of an individual or a group which influences the selection

from available modes, means, and ends of an action.

Rokeach, 1972 Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or

end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite

or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence

Lau, 1979 Values are things, ideas, beliefs and acts that are regarded as good or

bad, right or wrong, desirable, beautiful or ugly, contributing o

detrimental to human welfare and so on.

Manford, 1981 Values are peoples belies on what is desirable and undesirable

Parameswaran EG &

Beena, 1988

Values are general and directed. They indicate what one is looking for

and what one want to achieve.

Ravi Paturi, 1991 Value is the basis which helps for selecting between dualities

Form the above listed definitions of values, it could be said that values are beliefs or preferable

modes of conducts and ideal goals or end states of existence, underlying attitudinal or behavioural

processes. Once established, values act as built-in, normative guides to behaviour.

4.4.2.1 Work Values

Values in the context of work simply mean the rewards and end states for which the individuals

would strive for. George & Jones in their article on Experiencing work have referred to Nord,

Brief, Ateih & Dohertys (1990) definition of work values as: Desired end-states that a person things

he/she should be able to realize through working and desired modes of behaviour at work.


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It is important to recognize that peoples work values determine the meaning that work, jobs and

organizations have for them. Moreover, as values have motivational properties, it is understood

that work related values include all those motivationally relevant factors that energize, direct and

sustain human behaviour at work.

4.4.2.2 Review of Literature on Work Values

Douglas (1920) conducted one of the early studies on work values when he studies 2,844 high

school seniors, who mentioned several reasons for preferring a particular job. Kornhauser (1936)

and Centers (1949) are some of the other early studies on work values. According to Elizur, Dov;

Koslowsky, Meni, (1996) three main stream of research were identified in the field of work values.

4.4.2.3 Factors Influencing Work Values

The significant among the factors influencing work values are (1) individual factors, (2) organizational

factors, and (3) social & other factors.

4.4.2.3.1 Individual Factors

At the individual level, each person possesses a unique set of personal values that are relevant to

multiple life areas, with some especially appropriate to the work context, which are referred to as

individual work values (Sage & Elizur, 1996). The work value systems that are developed by

individuals are dependent on the demographic characters of the individuals along with several other

factors. Here we have considered a few demographic variables that are possible causative factors in

the development of individual work values. These are:

* Age

* Gender

* Education

4.4.2.3.1.1 Work values and Age

Several studies have been conducted on an individuals age as a deciding factor of his/her work value

system. These studies reveal that age has a direct positive effect on the work value systems of

individuals.

4.4.2.3.1.2 Work values and Gender

Traditionally, two broad approaches have been used to explain gender differences in work values:

the gender socialization model and the social structural model. Proponents of the gender

socialization model argue that observed differences in work values (e.g., mens greater emphasis on

pay and career advancement and womens greater concern for social aspects of their work) reflect

traditional patterns of gender socialization Surveys (Elizur, Dov, 1994; Rowe, Reba; Snizek, William


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E, 1995; Mason E Sharon) conducted on the effect of gender differences on work values reveal that

there is hardly any differences in the work values of male and female employees. Instead, the

findings suggest that regardless of gender, ones preference for a given work value depends, in large

part, on ones age, education, and occupation prestige.

4.4.2.3.1.3 Work Values and Education

Work values of people with different educational backgrounds are said to show variations with

respect to the type of work related aspects they consider important.

4.4.2.3.2 Influence of Organizational Factors on Work Values

In organizations, work values develop through a variety of ways. There are a few

charismatic leaders in some organizations, through their relationship with their subordinates

establish some guides to behaviour, build some work values. In other cases, the workvalues of the original founders are inculcated into the work life of the firm. In the

day-to-day working of the organization, the work values come to light in the form of certain

shared set of values that are exhibited by the various groups and individuals within the

organization. Company (often referred to as organizational or institutional) level work

values are said to exist when the groups and individual members within the company, share

a common set of values with regard to their functioning. These unique company level

values stem from such factors as management policy, leadership style, organizational culture,

organizational learning, reward systems, selection processes and formal and informal intra &

extra organizational communication (Goodman, Olivera & Ramanjujam, 1997; Pratt &

Kleiner, 1989; trice & Beyer, 1993). The typology of an organization & its technology base,

are some of the other factors that are responsible for the value systems of organizations.

4.4.2.3.3 Influence of Social Factors on Work Values

The individual, group and company are subject to forces outside their control like society

and nation at large. These forces have their own unique cultures that some work values to

become more important and compelling than others. Some of these forces influencing the

formation of specific work values are as follows:

* Family influence

* Group influence


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4.4.2.3.3.1 Family and Work Values

The family systems are a source of significant influence in the development of specific types

of work value systems that lead to specific behaviours in individuals. Studies conducted in

this area by Watanbe Shimichiro & Kiyoshi Takahashi (1997) and Sheldon Zedeck et al

(1997) indicate that specific facets of work and family are responsible for specific behaviours

of people at work. Likewise, the type of family builds specific value systems in individuals

i.e. to say, the work value systems of individuals who are part of a joint family systems are

different from those who are part of nuclear or for that matter atomic families, and

vice-versa. However, it is not possible to say that the value systems of one type of family are

better than the other. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages in shaping the right

kind of value systems in people.

4.4.2.3.3.2 Group Influences & Work Values

Every individual is a member of some group or the other. Group-level work values are developed

from the interactions of people within these groups and value systems they bring them into the

group. The groups in turn influence the formation of specific work values in individuals. According to

Klein, Dansereau & Hall (1994), although interpersonal difference in the work values are inevitable,

the values are relatively homogeneous within the group. This means that the group members aremore similar, with regard to their work values, than they are dissimilar. The teamwork, collective

decision-making, social loafing, etc. all re responsible for the generation of certain type or work

values in individuals, that lead to specific behavioral outcomes. A lot of work in this area has been

done by Ravlin Medlino & Adkins (1991); Shaw (1981); Vecchio (1995) and others.

4.4.2.3.4 Consequences of Values

In the above discussion, an attempt is made to explain regarding various factors influencing the

development of specific work values in individuals. All these work values guide the behavior and

thought processes of individuals with regards to the work they do. For the effective functioning of

an organization, a certain level of congruency is a must, between the individual and the organizational

work values. Incongruence beyond a certain level will lead to situations that will affect the individual

as well the organization. It is therefore essential for an organization to provide the proper

atmosphere in the work place that will maximize the congruence between the organizational and

individual work values.


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4.4.2.3.5 Operational Definitions of Work Values

For the purpose of present studying values, the framework adopted by Sinha(1991) from the Work

Importance Study is taken. Values are studied in terms of the importance given by the individuals and

the chance that they perceive for fulfilling these values. As for as typology is concerned values arestudied under three heads namely work oriented values, people oriented values, and self-oriented

values. The following are the operational definitions of these three types of values.

4.4.2.3.5.1 Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work..

4.4.2.3.5.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Change for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at the

work place.

4.4.2.3.5.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work

4.4.3 Orientations

English and English (1958) have stated that orientation is cognitive when it consists chiefly in knowing

the situation; positively or negatively or cathective when it consists primarily in feelings; evaluative

when comparisons are made and relations of the situation to personal goals are brought out.

According to Tinbegen (1951) orientation id property of the innate disposition that it directs the

conditioning to special parts of the receptual field. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1951) singled out five

crucial that is common to all human groups not only influencing work activities but also all the other

non-work activities. These are:

- Human nature orientation dealing with the character of innate human nature.

- Man-nature orientation dealing with the relation of the man with nature.

- Time orientation dealing with temporal focus of life.

- Activity orientation dealing with modality of human activity.

- Relational orientation dealing with the modality of mans relationship to other men.

Pareek (1997) discusses about action orientation. He sees it as integral part of personal efficacy.

According to him, an action-oriented person shows some amount of self-discipline, or what

McClelland (1975) has called activity inhibition. He works hard, denies himself opportunities for


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immediate gratification of some of his desire, sticks to his schedules, spends long hours on job and

so on.

Sinha (1990) had studied job clarity and time salience as orientations relating to work. The present

stud has taken up task orientation and self-role integration as orientation towards work. Teachingbeing a role is considered while self-role integration is chosen to understand the amount to which

the teaching staff in educational organizations see their self being closer to the roles that they are

(supposed to be) playing, i.e. seeing themselves in the role/s they are performing. Task orientation is

chosen to understand to see the contrast that the teaching staff understands with regard to role and

vice versa.

4.4.3.1 Task Orientation:

Tasks are bits and pieces forming part of work activities. The tasks that are in the form bits pieces

combine together to make a large work activity or a combination of activities. Having an

understanding (cognition) how these tasks make part of work activities is task orientation. The task

orientation further has two dimensions. The first dimension is the task darity, and other is the task

focus.

4.4.3.1.1 Operational Definition of Task clarity

Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how they

are related to each other.

4.4.3.1.2 Operational Definition of Task focus

Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed.

4.4.3.2 Self-role Integration

Self and role are one of the widely discussed, but the same time one of the most complex areas inthe literature or organizational behavior literature. Concept of self is discussed widely both by

philosophers as well as psychologists. Concept of self often is synonymously used with words such

as ego person.

4.4.3.2.2 Self

Bobby Turnaisky & Paul A Hare (1998) define self as the sum of individual beliefs or knowledge

about his or her personal qualities, and social identity as the part of the self-concept that comes

from the group membership. Rosenberg (1979) defines self as the totality of individuals thoughts

and feeling having reference to himself as an object. Turner (1968) defined it as typical himself


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conception. Esptein (1973) suggests that self concept can be viewed as a theory that a person held

about himself as experiencing and functioning being in interaction with the world. Self concept seems

to link individual with other social structures like family, work organization, etc. on one hand and

with his activities and positions that the carries. Role is one such concept, which is total interwoven

with the concept of self.

4.4.3.2.2 Role

Role is often confused with position in the office. These two are separate concepts. According Kart

and Kohn (1964), position is a relational concept and role is obligational concept. Keith Devis (1998)

defines role as the pattern of actions expected of a person in activities involving others. Role

reflects a persons position in the social system, with its accompanying rights and obligations, power

and responsibility. For Pareek (1997) role is the position one occupies in a social system, and is

define by the functions one performs in response to the significant members of a social system, and

ones own expectations from that position in the office. The concept of role is vital in integrating the

individual with the organization. The concept of role widens the meaning of work and the

relationship of the worker with others in the system. Individuals perceive role conflict when others

have different perceptions or expectations of a persons role. According to Pareed (1993), for

resolving the role conflict, the individual needs to develop role clarity and shopped strive towards

achieving self role integration. While elaborating self-role integration, Pareek (1997) suggests that

the individuals should try to be aware of their unique strengths, experiences, technical training,special skills, and contributions by putting all these into use in the role. Many a time there will be a

gap between the self and the role and with the increase in the distance between the role and the self

feels more and more role conflict. The reduction of distance between the self and the role will

eventually lead to self-role integrating resulting in meaningfulness of the role activities. The present

study is mainly concerned with understanding this dimension self-role integration and the spread of

such an orientation among the teaching staff working in educational organizations.

4.4.3.2.3 Operational Definition of Self-role Integration

In the present study self-role integration was defined as: individuals disposition of seeing one self in the

role-played by she while being at work.

4.4.4 Behaviours

As is already mentioned one of the key dimensions of work culture is the behaviour or the activity.

This behavior could be manifested in any form. A Variety of such manifestations are recorded

(Etzioni 1961, Ouchi, 1981, Sinha, 1990, Kanungo, 1993). According to Etzioni (1961) work culture is

exhibited in the form of workers commitment to the identification with the group and theorganization as well as their sense of involvement with their work assignments. For Super (1982, the


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involvement, interest and the engagement show the activity of work behaviour. Ouchi (1981) strong

believes the work culture is to be seen in the form of commitment and productivity of the work

group. Sinha (1990) sees time distribution as the critical variable of activity dimension of work

culture. Taking cue from Super & Nevill (1986) Sinha has made an effort to measure the activity

component or the extent of participation in the work role by asking how much time one devotes in

working compared to the other life roles. As Sinha sees this time distribution measure suffering from

constraint of incapable of measuring the resultant quality of work, uses hard work (1990) as another

dimension to measure the activity component. The present research would study work commitment

and performance satisfaction as behavioral (activity) measures.

4.4.4.1 Work Commitment

Since Perry (1968) has conducted one of the early comprehensive works on commitment and gave

first indication that commitment is an observable phenomenon and can be subjected to empirical

investigation. Numbers of studies are conducted on organizational commitment (Modway, Porter &

Steers, 1982: Reichers, 1985; Salancik, 1977; Scholl, 1081; Staw; 1977); career commitment (Card,

1978); union commitment (Michael E Gordon, John W Philpot, Robert E Burt, Cynthia A

Thompsom, and William E Spiller, 1980); occupational commitment; and work commitment. All

these studies on commitment may be classified under two heads, (1) with studies focused on

commitment of an individual with regard to an entity (organization, union), activity (work and job) or

an issue (career, occupation) under one category and (2) the studies based on how commitment asconstruct is understood (ex: attitude, behaviour, and response set). Among the first category of

studies on commitment, organizational commitment is the most explored one.

4.4.4.1.2 Commitment: What it is?

Commitment is one among those topics in organization studies which is researched quite

extensively and hence difficulty in coming to a consensus in defining the term. According to Modway

et all (1982), researchers from various disciplines ascribed their meaning to the topic thereby

increasing difficulty in understanding the construct. The complexity of understanding the meaning of

the term commitment increases with related terms such as allegiance, loyalty, identification,

involvement, and attachment.

As organization culture and work culture are used synonymously, many scholars would use

organizational commitment (Allen & Mayaer, 1998) when they actually mean work commitment or

other way. In fact, in iarge amount of literature on commitment the phrase work commitment is

used to denote a plethora of commitments related to work activities, like organizational

commitment, occupational commitment, and career commitment and many other attitudinal and


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behavioural attributes (Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C, 1987; Kubes, Marian, 1990; Randall,

Donna M; Cote joseph A, 1991; Bastos Antonio V. 1992 Cohen Aron, 1993).

Morrow, Paula C; McElroy, james C. (1987), tested four measures of work commitment (job

involvement, organizational commitment, work ethic endorsement, and intention to remain). Kubes,Marian (1990) investigated the discriminant validity of 3 measures of work commitment (job

involvement, career commitment, and organizational commitment) in 93 research workers (mean

age 38 yrs). Randall, Donna M; Cote, Joseph A. (1991) presented a model of work commitment

which specifies multivariate relationships among organization commitment, career salience, work

group attachment, job involvement, and the Protestant work ethic. Bastos, Antonio V. (1992)

studied the discriminant validity of instrument measuring workers relationship to 4 aspects of the

work environment: (1) organization, (2) Union, (3) profession, and (4) job. Cohen, Aaron (1993)

assessed how forms of work commitments (job, occupational, union, and organizational

commitment) are related to withdrawal intentions and union effectiveness, studied four facets of

work commitment (occupation, value, organization, and job). Ogasawara Etsko (1997) studied the

relationship between job satisfaction and work commitment among the Japanese and American

Collegiate coaches adopting Blau, Paul, and St. Johns (1993) general index of work commitment

which contained 31 items to measure four facets of work commitment: organizational commitment,

occupational commitment, job involvement, and value of work.

It was observed that most of the above-mentioned studies could not take work commitment as adistinct construct from that of organization commitment. As alredy mentioned, work commitment is

different from all the other kinds of commitment, especially organizational commitment.

Organizational commitment is the commitment to an entity called organization, whereas work

commitment is commitment of an individual towards the activity called work. Thus an independent

operational definitional definition work commitment is developed for the purposed of present

study. But, the spirit from the definition of organizational commitment given by Modway & Porter

(1982) is adopted for this definition.

4.4.4.1.2 Operational Definition of Work Commitment

According to the definition for the purpose of present study, work commitment is defines as:

individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable effort.

4.4.4.2 Performance Satisfaction

As a resultant behaviour ar as an outcome variable, conventionally job satisfaction, role satisfaction

and performance satisfaction are studied. The present study has chosen to study performance

satisfaction, as teaching is not just a job, work or even a task. It is more a role, and that too a role to


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made and not to be taken. It is for this reason the measure performance satisfaction is chosen. It is

to be noted here that teaching is some thing like a sports, acting where performance means

presenting oneself in totally in that role. A teacher role does not end with taking few sessions each

day and conducting examinations to the students.

Brayfield and Croketts (1955) assumption that employee satisfaction directly affects job satisfaction

permeates the literature on the relationship between performance and satisfaction. According to

Pestonjee DM (1991), since an initial study in 1932, by Kornhauser and Sharp numerous studies

have considered relationship between these two variables. Some studies have tried to establish that

satisfaction leads to performance, though, this logic was questioned by Vroom (1964) and Organ

(1976). Some other think other wise.

According to Porter and Lawler (1968) satisfaction rather than a cause, is an effect of performance

i.e., good performance results in satisfaction. Though, some studies (Cherrington, Reitz, and Scott,

1971; Greene, 1973) argue of rewards as mediating role between performance and satisfaction,

some other studies talk of a significant, direct and strong causal relationship between performance

and satisfaction. A large-number of studies (Haney, Colleen J.; Long, Bonita C. 1995; Waung, Marie,

Maurya; Vancae, Robert J, 1995; Schul, Yaacov; Schiff, Miriam, 1995; Boyd, Michael; John, 1994)

especially conducted on sportsmen prove the point that performance results into satisfaction.

A study conducted by Mossholder, Kevin W; Bedean, Arthur G.; Niebuhr, Robert E.; Wesolowski,

Mark A(1994) on dyadic duration and impact of performance on satisfaction, as anticipated, in

shorter duration dyads, subordinate performance was positively associated with satisfaction with the

nature of work, characteristics of supervision and more so in cases where role become important as

in case of teaching staff working in educational organizations.

4.4.4.2.1 Operational Definition of Performance Satisfaction

In the present study, performance satisfaction is defined as: pleasurable and positive emotional state

resulting out of a perception of performing to ones expectations.

Thus, the following are the dimensions that were taken up as the dimensions of work culture under

this study.

Assumptions:

- Time orientation (Past Future)

- Reward Orientation (Extrinsic Intrinsic)

- System Orientation (System Salience Individual Salience)

- Locus of Control (External Internal)


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Values

- Work Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

- People Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

- Self Oriented Values Importance & Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

Orientation

- Task Clarity (Synergetic Non-Synergetic)

- Task Focus (Confused Distracted)

- Self Role Orientation (Integration Distance)

Behaviours

- Work Commitment

- Performance Satisfaction

4.4.1 Dependent Variables

4.4.1.1 Organizations:

One of the independent variable for this study is educational organizations operating at college level.

The demographic factors of teaching staff working in these organizations will be studied as factors

affecting work culture. The following factors would be taken up for study as organization related

factors.

- Age of the organization

- Management type

-

Student categories as three different factors.

4.4.1.1.1 Age of Educational Organizations

Educational organization were categorized as new educational organizations (10 years and below),

middle aged educational organizations (between 10-20 years), and old educational organizations (25

years and above).


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4.4.1.1.2 Management Type of Educational Organizations

Educational organizations were categorized as entrepreneurial education organizations (those

started with profit motive, under privatization of education), trust educational organizations (which

are basically non-profit trusts established for public cause), government and quasi governmenteducational organizations (University constituent colleges come under the quasi government

educational organizations), and minority educational organizations (educational organizations

established as religious minority educational organizations).

4.4.1.1.3 Educational Organizations based on Type of Students (Sex)

Educational organizations were categorized as girls educational organizations, boys educational

organizations, and co-educational organizations.

4.4.1.2 Teaching Staff Working in Educational Organizations

Teaching staff working in educational organizations form another part of independent variable. The

following demographic factors of these staff chosen for the present study

- Age of the Staff

- Sex of Staff

- Work Experience of the Staff

- Monthly Salaries of the Staff- Monthly Family Income

- Subject Focus of the Staff

4.4.1.2.1 Age of Staff

Based on age, the staff was categorized as (1) below 30 years; (2) between 30 40 years; (3)

between 40 50 years; and (4) above 50 years.

4.4.1.2.2 Sex of Staff

The variations in work culture between men and women staff was selected for the study.

4.4.1.2.3 Work Experience of Staff

Based on work experience, the staff was categorized as (1) less than 5 years; (2) between 5 10

years; (3) between 10 15 years; and (3) above 20 years.


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4.4.1.2.4 Monthly Salaries of Staff

Based on monthly salaries, the staff was categorized as those getting (1) less than Rs. 5000; (2)

between Rs. 5000 10000; (3) between Rs. 10000 15000; and (4) more than 15000

4.4.1.2.5 Monthly Family Income of Staff

Based on monthly family income, the staff was categorized as having (1) less than Rs. 1000; (2)

between Rs. 10000 15000; (3) between Rs. 15000 20000; (4) more than Rs. 20000.

4.4.1.2.6 Subject Focus of Staff

Based on subject focus, the staff was categorized as those teaching (1) general subjects; (2) technical

subjects; and (3) professional subjects.

4.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The present study basically rests on the primary data (especially in case of dependent variable)

collected with the help of a detailed questionnaire items measuring all the above mentioned

dimensions.

4.6 TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

A through review of the existing instruments was done to suit to the above-mentioned operational

definitions and to be adopted for the purpose of the present study. The review of literature helped

to locate two existing questionnaires to measure work culture (Sinha, 90; Sandhu & Daas, 96). As

the dimensions to be measured under the present study are to a large extent different from the

ones mentioned in the above-mentioned questionnaire, effort is made to develop a suitable Work

Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) for the purpose of the present study.

Review of literature of existing questionnaires is done before listing out the items for each of the

dimensions. Though there are questionnaires measuring some of the dimensions under study, like

locus of control, work commitment, time orientation and three work values (importance and

satisfaction), necessity of an independent and suitable questionnaire was seen for the present study.

Some of the items from already existing (Pareek, 1998) questionnaires are adopted.

4.6.1 Development of the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ)

The entire process of questionnaire development is done in four stages. In the first stage, items for

various dimensions under the study were developed. In the second stage the face validity is

established. In the third stage, test-retest reliability is established. In the fourth stage reliability using

Cronbach Alpha.


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4.6.1.1 Stage: 1 Developing Items for the Questionnaire

Statements (items) which represent the meanings of each of the work culture dimensions based on

the following operational definitions were listed. For each of the dimension statements ranging

between 10 to 15 were written some of these items were taken from the earlier scales falling underthe respective that this study is interested in, especially in case of locus of control.

4.6.1.1.1 Assumptions

4.6.1.1.1.1 Time Orientation

Time orientation is the tendency of individuals to attribute significance to either past to future.

4.6.1.1.1.2 System Salience

System salience is the relative that an individual attributes to the system/ organization against the

individual (including himself) towards the sustenance of the organization/ System.

4.6.1.1.1.3 Reward Orientation

Individuals preference for either intrinsic or extrinsic rewards.

4.6.1.1.1.4 Locus of Control

Locus of control is a general tendency to attribute success or failure to oneself or to causes outside

the self.

4.6.1.1.2 Work Values

4.6.1.1.2.1 Work Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to excel at work place and do the best kind of work.

4.6.1.1.2.2 People Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to be associated with people working with him/her at

work place.

4.6.1.1.2.3 Self Oriented Values (Importance Perceived Chance for Satisfaction)

Values that express the individuals desire to achieve a sense of fulfillment through work

4.6.1.1.3 Orientations


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4.6.1.1.3.1 Task Focus

7Task clarity is the understanding the individuals have about the details making part of task and how

they are related to each other.

4.6.1.1.3.2 Task Clarity

Task focus is individuals disposition to focus or concentrate on work until it is completed.

4.6.1.1.3.3 Self-Role Integration

Individuals disposition of seeing one self in the role-played by she while being at work.

4.6.1.1.4 Behaviours

4.6.1.1.4.1 Work Commitment

Individuals strong belief in the intrinsic worth of the activities and willingness to put considerable

effort.

4.6.1.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction

Pleasurable and positive emotional state resulting out of a perception of performing to ones

expectations.

For example statements such as pass is the most significant that the future in individuals life, the

experience of ones early leave an irreversible mark on ones life are written to represent past time

orientation and statements such as there is no meaning in continuing in a job unless it gets sufficient

salary, having job security is more important than whether the work interests us or not are written

to represent extrinsic reward orientation.

4.6.1.2 Stage: II (A) Face Validity Experts

The 10 to 15 items mentioned above along with the operational definitions of these dimensions on

the top portion of these items were given to five experts (noted behavioral scientists) for the

purpose of face validity.

4.6.1.2.1 The experts made the following comments

1. To go for a forced choice as far possible in case of polar dimensions like time orientation

(past orientation future orientation), reward orientation (Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic

Reward), system salience (individual Salience System salience), and locus of control

(Internal locus of control external locus of control).


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2. Some items are to be deleted, as they seem to have got a place under different dimensions

3. Rating is better than ranking

4. Task clarity should not be equated with task synergy

5. A clear distinction needs to be made between generic and generic and self-items.

6. For locus of control, loco inventory of Rotter of Pareek could be used.

7. In case of work commitment, some items of the Modway scale could be adopted.

8. Language and grammatical errors must be removed.

Apart from the above suggestions, doubts were expressed regarding of certain items

suitability to the operational definition.

Some of the suggestions could be followed for the inherent related to those suggestions.

For Example: Rotter or Pareeks scale could not be used for locus of control, as the number of item

too large which makes the questionnaire longer and may create problems for the respondents.

Based on these suggestions the items were redrafted and certain new items were added.

4.6.1.3

After following the suggestions of the experts and making necessary corrections, a tentative Work

culture Questionnaire (WCQ) was drafted using rating method. The items are arranged on a

Lickerts five point scale ranging between strongly agree to disagree in case of assumptions and

always to never in case of orientations and behaviours. For values Four point scale ranging between

1 and 4.

This tentative WCQ was circulated among the senior most the heads of educational organizations.

These heads of educational organizations were asked to give their comments on the suitability ofitems and also their nativity (Whether or not suitable specifically to educational organizations).

These senior academics were not asked to respond to the items in the questionnaire.

4.6.1.3.1 These experts gave the following comments

1. Ambiguity in some of the items must be removed

2. The items may be too many for the respondent to answer

3. Grammatical and typographical errors must be removed


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Based on these suggestions corrections were once again carried out.

4.6.1.4 Stage: III (A) Test Re-test Reliability

Corrections are carried on the basis of suggestions given by the senior Principals of the educational

organizations and the WCQ was given to a sample of 18 respondents in one of the educational

organizations (Degree College) essentially considering that these are the subjects for a test-retest.

All the instruments were coded for the convenience of data analysis. The respondents were asked to

help in by giving suggestions regarding the ambiguity in the language, grammatical and typographical

errors and also mention the time taken for filling in the instrument. They were also asked to

mention their comfort/ discomfort regarding the closeness of the items to their work life

The respondents expressed some problems like the ambiguity in some items and also mentioned

regarding the typographical errors. Most of the respondents mentioned that the items reflected their

thoughts and feelings regarding their work life. A large number of respondents mentioned about the

inconvenience in the time taken for filing in the questionnaire. According to them 30 minutes to 2

hours were taken for completing the instrument.

4.6.1.4.1 The following are the major suggestions given by the respondents:

1. To reduce the number of items, if possible to make it more convenient for answering

2. To give the code for answering on all pages of the questionnaire.

3. To remove the grammatical errors.

These corrections were not carried, as the questionnaire to be given to the same respondents for

test-retest so that any external influence could be avoided on the respondents. The instruments

(coded) were once again given to the same respondents after a period of three weeks to mainly see

the stability in the response pattern.

4.6.1.5 Stage: III (B) Reliability Test

The instruments were given to a cross section of respondents (teaching staff) (30) from different

colleges. These respondents were asked to mention their suggestions regarding the ambiguity,

grammatical and typographical errors and also to tell how much time was taken by them to fill the

instrument.

The data from these questionnaires was analyzed under two different heads.

1. Test Retest Reliability

2. General Reliability


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4.6.1.7 Test-Retest Reliability

Peron product moment co-related for each of the dimension to see consistency in the response

pattern from the first attempt to the second attempt.

Dimension Co-relation Co-efficient(P


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TABLE 4.2

RELIABILITY OF WORK CULTURE DIMENSIONS CRONBACH ALPHA

S.No. Work Culture Dimension No. of

Items

Cronbac

Alpha

1 Time Orientation 8 0.67

2 Reward Orientation 8 0.59

3 Locus of Control 8 0.64

4 System Salience 8 0.64

5 Work Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.76

6 Work Oriented Vales Importance 7 0. 69

7 People Oriented Values Importance 7 0.75

8 People Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.82

9 Self Oriented Values Importance 7 0.76

10 Self Oriented Values Perceived Chance for Satisfaction 7 0.74

11 Task Clarity 8 0.76

12 Task Focus 8 0.69

13 Self-role integration 8 0.57

14 Work Commitment 8 0.78

15 Performance Satisfaction 8 0.67

4.6.3 Calculating the Responses to WCQ

In the WCQ, four dimensions representing assumptions (time orientation, system salience, reward

orientation, and locus of control) contain eight items. 5 point Lickert type scale was used ranging

from strongly agree to strongly disagree. In case of assumptions, each of the dimension has two

poles, i.e. for time orientation past orientation and future orientation, for system salience


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individual salience and system salience, for reward orientation extrinsic reward orientation and

intrinsic reward orientation, and for locus of control internal locus and external locus. Thus, of

the eight items representing each of these dimensions, four are for one pole and four for another.

For example, in the case of time orientation, four items represent future time orientation and four

the past orientation. In all the four dimensions there is a desirable pole, i.e. for time orientation

future orientation in the desirable, for system salience system salience is the desirable, for reward

orientation intrinsic reward orientation is the desirable, and for locus of control the internal locus of

control (internality) is the desirable one. Keeping this in view, calculation of the scores of these

dimensions was done. Score of each of the four dimension is calculated with the help for a ration of

the desirable state being the numerator and the undesirable state as the denominator and is

multiplied by 10 (10 has particular significance, but for coming out with a number). For example if

the score of future orientation is 20 and past orientation is 4, then time orientation = 20/4X10=50.

Thus the maximum possible score for each of the dimensions representing assumptions is 50 and the

minimum possible score (calculated as the above) is 2.

Three dimensions representing orientations (task focus, task clarity and self-role integration) also

contain eight items each. Here again 5-point Linckert scale is used with strongly agree and strongly

disagree being the extremes and behavours (work commitment and performance satisfaction).

In case of values (work oriented, people oriented, and self-oriented) both in terms of importance

and chance seven items are taken. For values four point scale is used from frequently to never incase of chance and great deal to in case of importance. Thus each item score ranges from 4 to 1.

The Work Culture Questionnaire (WCX) is given in the appendix:1

4.7 SAMPLE

4.7.1 Educational Organizations

All the educational organizations selected for the study (satisfying the above-mentioned criterion)

are located within twin cities of Hyderabad and surrounding suburbs. A list of educational

organizations operating at graduate level involved in general education, professional education

(medicine), and technical education (engineering) was collected and keeping in view the scope of the

study, educational organizations are selected on basis of representative sampling and satisfying the

three organizations related factors (age of organizations, types of management, and types of student

base on sex).

For the purposes of possibility and plausibility, fifteen educational organizations are selected which

take care of at least two dimensions of the sample. For example an educational organization not

only represents organization based on the gender of the students, but also represents an old agedorganization. Table 4.2 gives brief details on the sample education organizations.


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TABLE 4.3

COMPOSITION OF EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

REPRESENTING THE SAMPLE

4.7.2 Staff Working in Educational Organizations

All the teaching staff working in the above mentioned fifteen educational organizations were given

the Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) of which, maximum possible were returned. The final

number considered for data analysis were 302 thus making the sample size (N = 302).

4.8 TOOLS FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES

The analyses of the data call for an examination of differences and relationships among variables. In

view of this, ANOVA for tests of variance and t test to assess the significant differences was

employed. Pearson product moment correlations are applied for assessing the relationship among

the variables.


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Chapter 5

UNDERSTANDING WORK CULTURE

IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

An attempt is made to arrive at an understanding of work culture in

educational organizations. With the help of mean scores, standard

deviations and the calculations of WCX, a overall picture of work

culture in educational organizations is given. An attempt is made to give

brief summary on each of the major dimension of work culture like

assumptions. Variations in work culture in educational Organizations

based on the variations in individual factors like age of staff and

organization related factors like age of the organization are mentioned.

Major findings of the present study are given.


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Understanding Work Culture

in Educational Organizations

In previous chapter, a detailed explanation was given on the research strategy and also on the

process of developing the 98-item Work Culture Questionnaire (WCQ) to measure various

dimensions of work culture under study. This chapter focuses on the analysis and interpretation of

data collected from the respondents and to arrive at an understanding of their pattern of work

culture.

5.1 SNOITAZINAGRO LANOITACUDE NI ERUTLUC KROW FO NRETTAP LLA REVO

To arrive at an understanding of overall pattern of work culture in educational organizations, mean

scores and. standard deviations were calculated for four major dimensions (assumptions, values,

orientations, and behaviours) and sub-dimensions of the work culture among the total sample (N =301). The results are given in table: 5.1

TABLE 5.1

MEAN SCORES SDS OF WORK CULTURE VARIABLES *

Sl. No. DIMENSIONSMin. Pos

ScoreMax. Pos

ScoreActual MeanScores & SD

Percentage

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Time orientation 2.00 50.00 13.03 (4.04) 26.06

2. System Salience 2.00 50.00 11.12 (3.48) 22.24

3. Locus of control 2.00 50.00 12.22 (3.67) 24.44

4. Reward orientation 2.00 50.00 13.28 (4.83) 26.56

VALUES

5. Work oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 22.25 (3.08) 79.46

6. Work oriented values chance 7.00 28-00 18.01 (3.62) 64.28

7. People oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 20.32 (3.22) 75.57

8. People oriented values chance 7.00 28.00 17.87 (3.65) 63.82

9. Self oriented values importance 7.00 28.00 21,44 (3,53) 76.57

10. Self oriented values chance 7.00 28.00 17.73 (3.63) 63.32

ORIENTATIONS

11. Task clarity 8.00 40.00 32.93 (4.75) 82.32

12 Task Focus 8.00 40.00 30.15 (4.46) 75.37

13 Self role integration 8.00 40.00 27.31 (3.53) 68.27

BEHAVIOURS

14 Work commitment 8.00 40.00 31.06 (4.91) 77.65

15. Performance satisfaction 6.00 30.00 21.00 (3.41) 70.00

*Details of the method of calculations are given in the previous chapter. (4.6.3)

From the mean scores and percentages of these scores against the maximum possible score for

each of the ension the following observations are made.


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5.1.1 Assumptions

Time orientation, reward orientation, system salience and locus of control were the components of

assumptions part of work culture, i.e. belief systems.

5.1.1.1 Time orientation

The mean score given in table 5.1 against time orientation ( ) may give an impression that

the staff working in educational organizations are future oriented. In fact, if the mean score at =

10.00 is the line deviating between the past and future orientations (if the scores for past and future

orientations are equal, if use formula of arriving at time orientation the scores stand at 10.00. The

details are given in the previous chapter while explaining the scoring method) and as = 13.03 is

just on the edge and only 26.06% of the maximum possible score. Thus, though apparently the

subjects appear to be future oriented, in reality this does not appear to be so. These subjects appear

to be more different from other sections of society in not been highly future oriented, if not largely

past oriented. This tendency seems to similar to other sections of society, as earlier researches

(Kanungo, 1994; Triandis, 1984) point out that across organizations Indians are oriented towards

past.

5.1.1.2 Reward orientation

Mean score of reward orientation are given in table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as against

the minimum possible score ( =10.00) and only 26.56% of the maximum possible score. Therefore

it may be interpreted that across educational organization, staff share an extrinsic reward

orientation. This means that in educational organizations people attribute more importance to the

extrinsic rewards such as salary, promotion than intrinsic rewards such as recognition.

5.1.1.3 System salience

Mean score of system salience given in table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as against the

minimum possible score ( ) against this dimension which is only 22.24% of the maximum

possible score ( ). Hence, it may be concluded that across educational organizations the

staff share an individual salience, i.e. an orientation of considering individual more important than the

system.

5.1.1.4 Locus of control

Mean score of locus of control as can be seen from table 5.1 is also on the edge ( ) as

against the minimum possible score ( ) which is only 24.44% of the maximum possible

score ( ) of this dimension. Thus it may be interpreted that the subjects share an external

locus of control orientation. i.e. believing that mechanisms external to one self control one's success

or failure.


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5.1.1.5 Summary

The mean scores of all the four dimensions representing assumptions show that staff working in

educational organizations share past time orientation, extrinsic reward orientation, and external

locus of control. The past research (Iraindis, 1983; Kanungo, 1990; Kanungo, Mishra and others,

1996) on these dimensions show that these three dimensions are interrelated and the results of this

study confirm this. The significant variation seems to be that of individual salience. According to the

mean scores of system salience, the staff working in educational organization seems to be sharing

individual salience. According to previous research on cultural variations, individualism is noticed in

industrial societies such as USA as these nations also share a Protestant work ethic and are future

oriented. Internals, and believe in intrinsic worth of work activities. Whereas according to the

findings of the present study, the staff working in educational organizations are individual salient in

spite of being past oriented, externals and extrinsic reward oriented. Pearson Product moment

correlation's were calculated to observe the inter relationship among these four dimensions. The

subjects appear to be futuristic oriented and intrinsically reward oriented, though not very high,

appears to be result of the Western oriented education system and perhaps even the social

desirability and stereotyped perceptions.

To observe the interrelationship among these four dimensions. Pearsons Product moment

correlations are calculated, and are given in Table 5.2

TABLE: 5.2

PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ASSUMPTIONS

Sl.No.

Dimensions Time Orientation System SalienceReward

OrientationLocus of Control

1. Time orientation 1.00

2. System Salience 0.09 1.00

3. Reward Orientation o.22*** 0.96 1.00

4. Locus of Control 0.16** 0.12* 0.15** 1.00

Significance Level: * = P


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culture in this study. Following is an overview of the pattern of these dimensions among the

subjects..

5.1.2.1 Work oriented values - Importance

The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented value importance ( ) as against

maximum possible score ( ) is 79.46%. Therefore it may be interpreted that importance

given to work oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and skills at work, doing innovative things

at work is high among the subjects.

5.1.2.2 Work oriented values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for work oriented values - perceived chance for importance

( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 64.28%. Therefore it may be

interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling work-oriented values such as utilizing knowledge and

skills at work, doing innovative things at work is moderate among the subjects.

5.1.2.3 People Oriented Values - Importance

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value importance ( ) as against


given to people oriented values such as helping colleagues at work, being interested in maintaining

relationships with others while being at work high among the subjects.

5.1.2.4. People Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction

( ) as against maximum possible score ( ) is 63.82%. Therefore it may be

interpreted that perceived chance of fulfilling people oriented values such as helping colleagues at

work, being interested in maintaining relationships with others while being at work is moderate

among the subjects.

5.1.2.5 Self Oriented Value - Importance

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented value satisfaction ( ) as against


given to self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving personally, and earning

recognition through work is high among the subjects.

5.1.2.6 Self Oriented Values - Perceived Chance for Satisfaction

The mean score given in table 5.1 for people oriented values - perceived chance for satisfaction

= 17.73) as against maximum possible score ( = 28.00) is 63.32%. Therefore it may be interpreted


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that perceived chance of fulfilling self-oriented values such as being independent at work, improving

personally, and earning recognition through work is moderate among the subjects.

5.1.2.7 Summary

Further to above analyses, following observations are made with regard to all the three categories of

work values in general. It appears that as reported by the subjects, the three types of values are of

equal importance, none of the three more important than the others. Further, it is interesting to

notice that the perceived chance of satisfaction for all the three types of values are also consistently

low. Thus, there appears to be a gap between the attributed importance and perceived chances of

satisfaction. Perhaps, to some extent there appears the degree of alienation generally reported

among the college staff and also our finding that the levels of self-role integration in the group rather

low.

TABLE 5.3

PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG VALUES

Sl. NO. Dimensions 1 2 3

1. Work Oriented Values Importance 1.00

2. Self Oriented Values Importance 0.53*** 1.00

3. People Oriented Values - Importance 0.58*** 0.60*** 1.00

Significance Level: *= P


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5.1.3.2 Task Focus

From mean score given in table 5.1 of this dimension ( = 30.15) as against the maximum possible

score ( = 40.00) which is 75.37%, it may be interpreted that task focus is high among the subjects.

Thus, it may be interpreted that the subjects focus on to their tasks until they are completed.

5.1.3.3 Self-role Integration

From mean score of this dimension ( = 27.31) given in table 5.1 as against the maximum possible

score ( = 40.00) which is 68.27%, it may be interpreted that the subjects share a moderate

self-role integration, which means that the subjects do not see their skills and competencies being

totally utilized in their work roles and thus resulting in distance between the self and the role.

The expressed high task focus indicates a keenness to complete the task on hand and get rid of it .

The fact that there is very low level of self-role integration suggests such an interpretation. A low

level of self-role integration leads to a low level of involvement and consequently a low degree of

intrinsic motivation. The result being a felt need and almost urgency to complete the tasks. One

wonders, a concept of role emerges at all among these staff.

To understand the interrelationships among these three dimensions representing orientations,

Pearson product moment correlation's are calculated and are given in table SA .. A strong positive

co-relation was observed between all the three dimensions representing orientations of work

culture.

TABLE 5.4PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATIONS AMONG ORIENTATIONS

Sl.No. Dimensions Task Clarity Task FocusSelf-role

integration

1. Task clarity 1.00

2. Task focus 0.57*** 1.00

3. Self-role integration 0.44*** 0.37*** 1.00

Significance Level: *= P


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indicate that the subjects are willing to exert more than required effort in their work activities.

5.1.4.2 Performance Satisfaction

From mean scores of this dimension ( = 21.00) given in table 5.1 as against maximum possible

score ( = 30.00) which is 70%, it may be interpreted that performance satisfaction among the

subjects is hi

41_pdfsam_ Ravi Paturi Thesis

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