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Redefining Vocabulary: The New Learning Strategy for

Social StudiesAimee Alexander-Shea

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aDevelopmental Education , Hillsborough Community College , Tampa, Florida, USA

Published online: 22 Apr 2011.

To cite this article:Aimee Alexander-Shea (2011) Redefining Vocabulary: The New Learning Strategy for Social Studies, The

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The Social Studies(2011)102, 95103

Copyright C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 0037-7996 print / 2152-405X online

DOI: 10.1080/00377996.2010.509371

Redefining Vocabulary: The New Learning Strategy for

Social Studies

AIMEE ALEXANDER-SHEA

Developmental Education, Hillsborough Community College, Tampa, Florida, USA

Although vocabulary development is an important part of the social studies curriculum, vocabulary activities are often inadequate,leaving students with cursory knowledge of terms. Worse still is the fact that many of the most critical words demarcating the fieldare not included in those activities. Therefore, a transformation from viewing vocabulary instruction as a single activity that takes

time away from social studies instruction to recognizing vocabulary development as a powerful learning strategy is needed. Thisarticle offers an educational model that threads vocabulary development throughout the social studies curriculum in a non-intrusivemanner, enhancing and reinforcing students understanding of social studies. This model is based on educational theories that stressthe importance of activating prior knowledge, considering the relationships between concepts, comparing and contrasting ideas, andencouraging students to generate their own meaning of terms. Explanations and examples of vocabulary activities that draw on eachof these components are provided.

Keywords:secondary students, vocabulary development, social studies, learning strategies, secondary instruction, reading compre-hension

Redefining Vocabulary: The New Learning Strategy forSocial Studies

Literacy and world understanding create a perpetual cycle

of learning. As we become more literate, the better we un-derstand our world; just as when we better understand ourworld, the more literate we become. Both of these factorsare interdependent and rooted in our perceptions of soci-etal influences, use of language, and communication skills(Irvin et al. 1995). When problems we face challenge ourworld understanding and, in turn, our literacies, we en-gage in problem-solving that is the catalyst that fuels thislearning cycle (Dewey 1953).

Social studies is distinctive as it is more closely tied tothis learning cycle than any other field because the im-pact of culture, society, and the communication of ideasin various contexts is the very foundation of the discipline.Ideally, social studies prepares students to participate incivic affairs by actively involving them in social issues thatchallenge their worldviews and compels the cycle of learn-ing (Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards forSocial Studies 1994). However, exposure to social themes

Address correspondence to Aimee Alexander-Shea, Professor ofDevelopmental Education, Hillsborough Community College,4001 Tampa Bay Blvd., Tampa, FL 33614,USA. E-mail: [email protected]

commonly occurs by introducing concepts with a textbookand occasionally other text-based resources. Reliance onthe textbook makes learning core social concepts difficultfor many secondary students because of their deficiencies in

the tools required to gather information from social stud-ies texts. Therefore, in spite of the symbiotic relationshipbetween social studies, world understanding, and literacy,social studies resources can potentially hinder the develop-ment of civic-minded students if the obstacles to compre-hending those materials are not addressed by the teacher.This article explains how deficiencies in vocabulary instruc-tion create the most critical obstacles to comprehension inthe social studies. A model for employing vocabulary devel-opment as an effective learning strategy to improve overallinstruction is then offered. Each component of the modelis based on educational theory and is a critical elementin a lesson, thereby transforming vocabulary developmentfrom a single, isolated activity to a powerful learning strat-egy that reinforces social concepts being addressed in thecurriculum.

Problems Created by Resources

It is no secret that social studies is heavily text-based.Although social studies lends itself to drawing on multipleinformation sources, in many social studies classroomsteachers rely almost exclusively on the textbook to guide


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the curriculum. In fact, it is estimated that the textbookis used to deliver 85 to 95 percent of the curriculum in thetypical social studies classroom (Jones 1998), which meansthat use of the textbook far exceeds the use of any otherresource, including the teacher (Cruz 2002).

In addition to the over-reliance on textbooks, other re-

sources may also be drawn on in social studies. Due tothe sheer volume and interconnectedness of informationthat informs the field, comprehensive social studies educa-tion can easily encompass multiple and varied sources suchas the Internet, simulations, debates, movies, storybooks,cartoons, pictures, audio, video, primary sources, newspa-pers, magazines, and discussions. Just as with most socialstudies textbooks, supplemental resources such as theseare rarely written with the intermediate student in mind.As such, each of the information sources used by socialstudies teachers has the potential to present a great barrierto all students, especially those who are at risk or who arenonnative speakers of English (Dong 2009). Written well

above the grade level for which they are intended (Jitendraet al. 1999), social studies texts cause difficulty because theyrarely provide requisitebackground knowledge for compre-hension; they incorporate complex sentence structures thatpresent a number of concepts at once; and they use an ex-traordinary amount of esoteric vocabulary (Brown 2007).For these reasons, students need to be armed with a widearray of learning strategies if they are expected to gatherand apply social concepts.

Vocabulary in the Social Studies

When considering students abilities to comprehend thescope of the materials they encounter, vocabulary develop-ment is arguably the most important component of a lesson(Harmon and Hedrick 2000; Harmon, Hedrick, and Fox2000; Short 2002). In fact, unfamiliar vocabulary terms,including those terms referring to concepts, people, places,and events, presentthe primary impediment to learning inthe social studies classroom (Harmon and Hedrick 2000;Harmon, Hedrick and Fox 2000, 48; McClanahan 2008;Short 2002). Fully understanding the vocabulary used is akey element in a students ability to gather, interpret, an-alyze, and evaluate the information from these resources(Harmon and Hedrick 2000; Harmon, Hedrick and Fox2000; Short 2002). Although at times a partial understand-ing of a word may be enough for a student to understandthe text, the majority of the time a complete and deeperunderstanding of the academic language presented is nec-essary. Without a firm understanding of the vocabulary de-marcating the field, students will continually struggle withcomprehension (Milligan and Ruff 1990; Nagy, Anderson,and Herman 1987; Punch and Robinson 1992; Watts andTruscott 1996).

Social studies educators and textbook authors acknowl-edge the importance of academic vocabulary development

in social studies courses (Jitendra et al. 1999; Wilson,Readence and Konopak 2002), and there is, in fact, a strongbasis for such agreement. Some researchers (Archer, Glea-son, and Vachon 2003; Nagy and Anderson 1984) esti-mate that beginning in fifth grade and continuing everyacademic year beyond, students encounter approximately

10,000 words that they have never encountered before. Thecore concepts in social studies, as well as in other disci-plines, are often delivered through use of these unknownwords (Archer, Gleason, and Vachon 2003). The obviousproblem with relying on unfamiliar vocabulary to teachnew concepts is that since students do not know the words,their command of the material is greatly compromised.

The predicament of vocabulary attainment becomes evenmore blatant when considering that, in spite of being ex-posed to nearly 70,000 new words over the course of sevenyears, the average high school student graduates with avocabulary of only 35,000 to 42,000 words (Nagy andAnderson 1984). Therefore, many of the terms students

are exposed to never enter into their working language.This fact is not surprising when considering that it takes aminimum of ten exposures to a word to learn it well enoughto understand and use it (Short 2002). Since the vocabu-lary terms that compose the social studies encapsulate anarray of social concepts including events, people, hypothe-ses, theories, regions, laws, and perspectives, among otherthings, it is clear that vocabulary development is a criticallearning strategy that must be consistently and effectivelyintegrated into instruction.

Redefining Vocabulary Instruction

Students need to be exposed to critical vocabulary asmuch as possible throughout social studies courses. How-ever, based on the ways that textbooks and teachers com-monly present vocabulary, instruction has traditionallybeen viewed as a single, isolated activity used solely forthe purpose of introducing words to students at the begin-ning of a unit or reiterating new words at the end of one.This conception of vocabulary development fails to addressthe goals of the social studies by underestimating the pow-erful learning that vocabulary development can spark. Ifthe overarching goal of social studies courses is to involvestudents in civic activities that encourage them to betterunderstand the world and their place in it, then the goalof vocabulary development in social studies courses shouldbe to further that mission by helping students grasp thecomplete scope of the social concepts they are encounter-ing. For this reason, vocabulary instruction must be rede-fined to include more than just memorizing the meanings ofwords on a list. When implemented in a thoughtful man-ner, vocabulary instruction is an extremely powerful toolthat intertwines concept development throughout a lesson.The main objectives of this type of instruction are for stu-dents to construct a full understanding of the obvious and


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subtle characteristics of concepts, as well as to grasp theconnections among the social concepts they already knowand those they are learning while constructing their under-standingof the social realm. To meettheseobjectives, teach-ers must widen their view of vocabulary development andinclude meaningful activities that reinforce a more com-

plete understanding of the topics being explored (Billmeyerand Barton 2002; Vacca and Vacca 2002).

Theoretical Bases for Vocabulary as a Learning Strategy

A shift in the view of vocabulary development in the so-cial studies may be encouraged by taking into account thepurposes for vocabulary development. In the social studiesclassroom, vocabulary instruction should be thought of asa support for each lesson and as a means to provide authen-tic interactions with social concepts (Willingham and Price2009). Vocabulary instruction that enhances a lesson gen-

erally relies on students prior knowledge and interactionwith texts and other supplements. The primary goal of thistype of vocabulary instruction is to uncover connectionsbetween concepts and ideas that are threaded throughoutthe course so that students can fully appreciate the depth ofwhat they are encountering. When vocabulary instructionprovides for authentic interactions with social concepts,ideas are taught in context as they relate to the course it-self as well as to the world beyond. Not only do studentsconsider associations among themes in the course, but theyalso discover relationships to other courses they are taking,to their own lives, and to society as a whole. This methodol-ogy, based on schema theory, draws on prior knowledge to

help further the understanding of concepts because priorknowledge is the framework by which we understand newinformation (Anderson and Pearson 1984; Willingham andPrice 2009). Therefore, it is a critical component in both vo-cabulary development and lesson deliverybecause the moreprior knowledge that students retrieve as they are encoun-tering new information, the easier it is to grasp the novelconcepts. Thismethodology alsorelies on teaching studentsto recognize how social concepts are related. To fully ap-preciate the importance of a concept, students must under-stand the connections between the ideas they are learningand the things that they already know. Explicitly showingrelationships between ideas is imperative not only within asingle lesson but also throughout all course topics. Makingassociations with other courses, as well as their own lives,is crucial if students are going to apply what they are learn-ing. This methodology also lends itself to the recognitionof similarities and differences between concepts as well theclarification of students own understanding of the socialsphere. These types of authentic experiences help studentssee the relevance of the social sciences to their own lives.In this way, saliency is established and reinforced. Accord-ing to several researchers (DeRidder 2002; Freebody andAnderson 1983; Willingham and Price 2009), students per-

ceived saliency of a topic is a determining factor in theirmotivation to learn.

The impact that both schema and salience have onthe ability to grasp and think critically about socialconcepts provides a strong rationale for ensuring thatvocabulary development includes four key elements: (1)

the activation of prior knowledge; (2) consideration ofthe relationships between concepts; (3) comparison andcontrast of familiar concepts; and (4) student generation ofmeaning. Interestingly, these four components of vocabu-lary instruction are also foundational elements of effectiveteaching practices (Billmeyer and Barton 2002; Harmonand Hedrick 2000; Punch and Robinson 1992; Watts andTruscott 1996). As vocabulary instruction incorporatesthese essentials, it is transformed into a learning strategythat can be threaded throughout social studies curricula inunobtrusive yet meaningful ways.

Activation of Prior Knowledge

The first element of vocabulary development is the acti-vation of prior knowledge. Activating prior knowledge is avaluable learning strategy because it provides students withan opportunity to connect information and experiencesthey already know to new concepts and ideas. As those con-nections are forged, comprehension of new materials be-comes an easier task for students, increasing their ability tolearn in more profound ways (Billmeyer and Barton 2002;Jones 1998; Willingham and Price 2009). Since backgroundknowledge impacts students understanding of vocabulary,it also helps foster overall comprehension of social concepts

in a more general manner (Jenkins and Dixon 1983). Inessence, helping students discover how their backgroundknowledge relates to the newly encountered conceptsallows them to unlock the meaning and draw connectionsthat they might not otherwise make (Willingham and Price2009).

Activities that can be used to access prior knowledge areoften simple to conduct and require very little time. One ef-fective activity called mind streaming (Santa, Havens, andMaycumber 1996) begins by pairing students. The teacherprovides the class with a topic. Each partner in the pairtakes a turn to talk about anything familiar relating tothe topic for one minute without interruption and withoutpause. The stream of discussion in which the students en-gage is the basis for this strategys name. At the end of theexercise, all of the student-pairs are prompted to share withthe class the types of things they came up with.

Think-pair-share (Lyman 1981) is another effectivelearning strategy in which students are paired together andgiven a topic or question to reflect on. In the first step,everyone is asked to think about the topic for one minute.After the minute passes, students join their partners andhave a short discussion about their thoughts concerningthe topic or question. Finally, each student-pair shares


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discussion points with the entire group. This strategy dif-fers slightly from mind streaming in that students are giventime to generate their own thoughts about the topic beforeinteracting with their partners and the discussion betweenthe pairs is interactive instead of one-sided. The more struc-tured format of a think-pair-share may make this strategy

more attractive to teachers who are not adept at leadinggroup work.

Knowledge rating (Gifford 2000) is an activity that re-quires students to evaluate theirknowledge of critical wordsthat are related in a lesson or unit of study. In this activity,the teacher provides students with a list of words. Studentsrespond to each word, indicating if they (1) can use theword in a sentence that demonstrates its meaning and de-fines the word; (2) have heard the word and understand it,but cannot use it; or (3) are completely unfamiliar with theword. Students should use their responses to guide theiractivities while reading. If they believe they know the word,then they define it and use it. Next, they should determine

if they understand it correctly as they interact with the text.If they recognize the word, then they should look for moreinformation about it in the text with the goal of gainingenough knowledge of the word to begin using it. Finally, ifthey do not know a word at all, then they should becomefamiliar with it as they read. This activity draws on stu-dents background knowledge and provides motivation foractively engaging with the text.

Consideration of the Relationships between Concepts

Accessing prior knowledge about a topic naturally leads

to the discovery of connections among concepts. Realiz-ing relationships among ideas helps students determine theimportance of a topic, and according to Peter Freebodyand Richard C. Anderson (1983), the perceived importanceof a word or concept is a critical component determiningstudents drive to learn. Therefore, meaningful vocabularyinstruction focuses on how the words and concepts relat-ing to a unit fit within larger contexts. Students can makepersonal connections on a much broader level if they areencouraged to consider the associations that social themeshave to their lives, other courses they have been in, and theworld as a whole. As these types of relationships are ex-plicitly and implicitly created, students often begin to lookfor correlations beyond the lessons being presented thatfosters solid relationships among various facets of theirlives. The more solid the connections, the more likely stu-dents are to transfer what they are learning to other aspectsof their lives, including academics (Billmeyer and Barton2002; Vacca and Vacca 2002).

Activities that foster an understanding of relationshipsbetween social concepts are useful for vocabulary devel-opment but can have farther-reaching effects in a lesson.For instance, a semantic map (Billmeyer and Barton 2002;Bryant et al. 2003; Vacca and Vacca 2002) is a graphic

Fig. 1.Example of a typical concept definition map.

display of relationships between general ideas and specificdetails (see figure 6). Semantic maps are similar to the struc-ture of a flow chart, with the topic appearing at the top ofthe map. Branching off of the main topic are componentsthat comprise the topic. There may be several levels of in-formation represented in the map, with each subsequent

level becoming more specific.Another activity that helps develop vocabulary while

showing relationships between ideas is a RAFT, or a writingactivity in which students write for a specific purpose. Theteacher provides parameters for student writing based onthe RAFT acronym: R stands for therolethe student mustassume; Astands for the audiencethat is being addressedby the writing; Fstands for the formatof the writing; andTstands for thetopicbeing written about. For example, ageography teacher might ask students to take on the roleof a travel agent (role) who is advising a group of tourists(audience) visiting a country for the first time (format) bycreating a brochure (topic) informing them of the top tenplaces they should visit and the historical significance ofeach site. In this type of activity, students can be required touse certain vocabulary terms throughout their writing. Notonly does using the vocabulary words help reinforce un-derstanding and demonstrate definitional knowledge, butit also exhibits students understanding of the overall con-cepts they learned (Santa, Havens, and Maycumber 1996).

Spoken word is a final vocabulary strategy that can beused to relate concepts. This strategy is particularly usefulin social studies because the teacher gives students the keyconcepts for the chapter, their definitions, and the context


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Fig. 2.Example of a modified concept definition map.

in which they can be found. Then, students are asked tofind ways in which the terms relate to their personal lives.Students are allowed to use outside resources such as theInternet, books, or even a family member to develop anunderstanding of the terms and how the concept impactstheir own lives. They are randomly asked to share personalstories that relate to each term and then to expand their def-initions to include a global meaning of the word (Grubaugh

and Metzger 1986).

Fig. 3.Example of the Frayer model.

Comparison and Contrast of Familiar Concepts

As students learn more about how topics relate, they shouldbe guided to make comparisons and contrasts betweennovel and familiar concepts. Considering similarities anddifferences leads students to recognize patterns that existin the material as well as those that logically occur in theworld. Not only are students encouraged to look at the

words and concepts in a general manner, but they are alsorequiredto consider thesubtle nuances that exist. These dis-tinctions are vital elements in the development of criticalthinking (Billmeyer and Barton 2002; Punch and Robinson1992; Vacca and Vacca 2002).

Several activities are effective for comparison and con-trast. One common activity is the Venn diagram (Doty,Cameron, and Barton 2003), which is a graphic organizercomposed of two circles that overlap in the center. In theoverlapping sections of the circles, similarities are noted. Inthe non-overlapping sections of the circles, students writethings that are different about the subject matter (refer tofigure 7).

Semantic feature analysis (Bryant et al. 2003) is a chartthat shows similarities and differences between character-istics that compose various concepts (see figures 4 and 5).Each concept is written in its own cell going down the firstcolumn of the chart, while the top row lists characteris-tics that apply to some of the various concepts presented.Students are asked to indicate which characteristic appliesto each concept. This activity can lead into intense dis-cussions about social concepts, especially when conceptsrevolve around some degree of controversy or there are


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Fig. 4.Example of typical semantic feature analysis.

characteristics that only apply to a concept under certaincircumstances (Billmeyer and Barton 2002; Bos et al. 1989;Vacca and Vacca 2002).

A word sort (Gillett and Temple 1983) helps studentsdeepen theirunderstandingof the distinctions among termsthat must be categorized based on their overtand subtlefea-

tures. Word sorts are particularly effective for scaffoldinghigher-order thinking skills since the teacher initially pro-vides the categories by which students sort the words. Asstudents become more proficient, they may create their owncategories. Seeing as there are no correct answers to this ac-tivity, students are left to justify their choice of category

Fig. 5.Example of semantic feature analysis with exceptions noted.


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Fig. 6.A semantic map.

labels as well as their categorizations (Billmeyer and Bar-ton 2002; Bryant et al. 2003; Punch and Robinson 1992;Vacca and Vacca 2002).

List-group-label (Gifford 2000; Taba 1967) is a three-stepactivity that helps students clarify their understandings ofconcepts. In theliststep, the teacher provides a topic. As awhole group, students come up with a list of about twenty-

five words that are associated with that topic. During thegroup step, the teacher reads each word to the class and asksstudents to categorize words based on similar features. Inthelabelstep, students come up with labels for the groupsof words. The title for each group should represent therelationship between the words in that group. The class as awhole then evaluates the groupings and labels, determiningwhich are most appropriate. This activity is best used as apostreading vocabulary strategy because students must besomewhat familiar with the topics to be successful.

Student Generation of Meaning

With newfound understanding of relationships, similari-ties, and differences among social ideas, students are nowprepared to generate their own comprehensive definitions.The benefit of allowing students to develop personal defi-nitions is that long-term retention increases (Billmeyer andBarton 2002). Although it may be difficult to imagine al-lowing students freedom to create their own definition ofa word, in reality students construct their own meaning ofthe word whether or not it is endorsed by the teacher be-cause the interaction between student and content results

in the formation of a personalized definition if content isunderstood.

Several activities support student generation of meaning.One activityrelies on student predictions of word meanings.This activity is done prior to exposure to the topic. Studentsare given a list of terms at the beginning of the unit andasked to predict the meaning of each word. As they are

introduced to the material through reading or a lesson,

Fig. 7.A Venn diagram.


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they determine if their predicted definitions were correct.This activity helps students draw out prior knowledge andgives them a reason to focus on material they are learning(Santa, Havens, and Maycumber 1996).

Another effective graphic organizer that fosters student-generated definitions of concepts is the concept definition

map (Schwartz and Raphael 1985). To begin with, studentslist what the concept is like by providing attributes andqualities. After the characteristics are given, students of-fer examples of the concept. Finally, students define theconcept by using their own words (Billmeyer and Barton2002; Vacca and Vacca 2002). Concept definition mappingis a useful tool for uncovering shades and variations in themeaning. Figure 1 provides an example of a typical conceptdefinition map, whereas figure 2 offers a modified version.

The Frayer model (Frayer, Frederick, and Kalusmeier1969; see figure 3) is similar to concept definition mappingin that it asks students first to consider the characteristicsand examples of a word. Students are also asked to provide

nonexamples, or instances that do not demonstrate theconcept. This activity differs from concept definition map-ping in that students are prompted to provide examples andnonexamples from their own life experiences. The final stepof this activity is to come up with a personal definition forthe word based on the characteristics, personal examples,and nonexamples (Billmeyer and Barton 2002).

Conclusion

Social studies has unique ties to literacy and world un-

derstanding. Being a discipline that relies so heavily ontext, teachers must reflect on how social vocabulary is be-ing taught throughout the curriculum. Vocabulary devel-opment is critical to students success in the social stud-ies classroom and should entail activities that encouragea comprehensive understanding of the topics encountered.The view of vocabulary as a sole activity independent of allother instruction is not acceptable if students are expectedto understand and apply social studies in their lives. In-stead, vocabulary instruction should be threaded through-out the curriculum in ways that allow students to interactwith concepts, terms, historical figures, ideas, theories, andother field-specific language. Changing how vocabulary in-

struction is viewed is one key to improving students overallcomprehension of the discipline.

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