Lucrare Licenta Pt Imprimat

8/12/2019 Lucrare Licenta Pt Imprimat

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Chapter1. The Category of Mood as a Means

of Expressing Modality

Mood is a grammatical category by means of which modality is expressed, i.e. it is a

form showing the way in which the speaker considers the action denoted by the verb. Both in

Old English and in Middle English there were three moods (according to most grammarians)

the !ndicative, the !mperative and the "#b$#nctive.!n %ontemporary English the sit#ation is

far more complex.

&'he #estion of the n#mber and nomenclat#re of moods in contemporary English,

says B.*. !lysh, is not solved...'he sol#tion considerably depends on whether we sho#ld

st#dy moods from the point of view of meaning...or from the point of view of the forms

themselves. 'he problem is all the more complex as in %ontemporary English certain mood

forms are abo#t to disappear, witho#t, however, having disappeared altogether....

'hat there is no #estion or non+finite moods in English morphology seems to be

one of the few stand+points in con$#nction with which there is some agreement. "till,

disagreement characteries the very first ma$or problem - the exact n#mber of moods (by way

of ill#stration let #s mention that e#tschbein disting#ishes /0 moods, whereas Berger Evans

has only 1 and 2almer none).

3s#ally, in English there are considered to be 4 moods the !ndicative, the

!mperative, the %onditional and the "#b$#nctive. 'his classification is $#stified by a certain

parallelism with 5omanian grammar and by the view that all personal forms of the verb may

be incl#ded in one of the above categories.

'he interest of ling#ists on mood and modalityis rather recent and closely connected

to the development of pragmatics as an independent branch of ling#istics. 'he definition of

the terms is necessary in order to analye the category of modality in English in terms of a

typological st#dy. Mood is one of the distinctive forms that are #sed to signal modality,

whereas modality is a facet of illoc#tionary force, signaled by grammatical and6or lexical

devices which express

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+ the illoc#tionary point or general intent of a speaker7

+ a speakers degree of commitment to the expressed propositions believability,

obligatorness, desirability or reality.

'he term moodis #sed by some a#thors in the same sense as modality is. Others

disting#ish the two by #sing mood to refer to the contrastive grammatical expressions of

different modalities and reserving modality to refer to the meanings so expressed. !f in

addition, modality is #sed to refer to meanings expressed by lexical means as well as

grammatical, it is a synonym of the illoc#tionary force. !n ling#istics, the attit#de of the

speaker towards the content of the comm#nication, (more precisely towards the content of the

sentence or towards the principal verb(s) of the sentence), is called modality.Modality is the

&so#l8 of the sentence, the res#lt of an active operation of the speaking s#b$ect. *n #tterance

does not become a sentence #nless modality is expressed in it. 'here are two ways in whichlang#ages deal grammatically with the overall category of modality

+ the modal system7

+ moods.

Both may occ#r within a single lang#age, however, in most lang#ages, only one of

these devices is more salient, i.e. more important than the other. !t is not always possible to

draw a clear distinction between mood and modal system, since, in some lang#ages, the

overall system of modality has characteristics of both. English is an example of lang#age

where the appearance of the modal system has been accompanied by the disappearance of the

*nglo+"axon mood system.

Modality is expressed in different ways by different lang#ages. Modality can be

expressed via grammaticied elements s#ch as a#xiliary verbs or verb endings, via indirect

means s#ch as a preposition phrase or a cla#se, or in other ways, s#ch as via adverbs. 9or

example, in English, the two sentences below have ro#ghly the same meaning, b#t express the

meaning in two different forms

(5)It is possible that the moon is made of cheese.

(6) The moon might be made of cheese.

"#btle, and sometimes not+so+s#btle, differences in interpretation occ#r depending on

the way modality is expressed. %ertain forms of expression may highlight certain aspects of

modal meaning. Many lang#ages will mark some modalities with partic#lar word endings,

etc., b#t will leave other means for marking other modalities.

'raditionally, st#dies of modality disting#ish between

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(a)sentencemodality, which deals with sentence types, s#ch as declarative (a

statement), imperative (a command), interrogative (a #estion), optative(a wish),

exclamatory(an exclamation), etc., and

(b) verbalmodality, which deals with the modal verbs and the mood of verbs.

1.1. Realis vs. Irrealis Actions

Many E#ropean lang#ages #se the indicative and the s#b$#nctive to disting#ish

between realis and irrealis actions. 'he former concept portrays sit#ations as act#alied,

knowable thro#gh direct perception, whereas the latter views them as p#rely within the real of

tho#ght, knowable thro#gh imagination. 'he distinction is sometimes referred to in terms of

assertion and non+assertion. ;owever, lang#ages may vary regarding the categories that are

treated as realis or irrealis e.g. one lang#age may mark commands as realis and another may

mark them as irrealis, a third may not treat them as a system of modality at all.

* possible approach to modality is to make a binary distinction between non+modal

- modal, or declarative - non+declarative, and to associate it with the notional contrast fact#al

- non+fact#al, or real - #nreal. 'he contrast fact#al - non+fact#al, or real+ #nreal is not clear

eno#gh to give a complete explanation of the realis - irrealis distinction. !n recent years, the

terms realis - irrealis have been #sed to point o#t the distinction modal - non+modal, or real+

#nreal.

*s far as the difference between the two terms is concerned, 9rank 2almer notes

Mith#ns definition &the realis portrays sit#ations as act#alied, as having occ#rred or

act#ally occ#rring, knowable thro#gh direct perception. 'he irrealis portrays sit#ations as

p#rely within the realm of tho#ght, knowable only thro#gh imagination.8( M.Mith#n // /). 'he distinction between realis and irrealis is disc#ssed in

terms of mood, altho#gh it can be applied to the modal system as well. !n English there are

three types of irrealis modality marked by the modal verbs. !t is very interesting to st#dy the

#se of the English modal verbs to make $#dgments abo#t the fact#al stat#s of a proposition.

On the other hand, notionally, the irrealis marked forms can be compared with the #nmarked

realis ones. 'his can be ill#strated as follows

e.g. /.Alice may be at her office now.

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a possible concl#sion ? spec#lative

:. Alice must be at her office now.

the only possible concl#sion ? ded#ctive

1. Alice will be at her office now.

a reasonable concl#sion ? ass#mptive

4.Alice is at her office now.

an established fact ? real

'he sentences above are interpreted and labeled according to the modal concept and

to the type of modality they express. 'h#s, the first three sentences express a possible

concl#sion, the only possible concl#sion, a reasonable concl#sion, being labeled spec#lative,

ded#ctive and ass#mptive. 'he fo#rth sentence expresses an established fact. %onse#ently, itis a realis form, a declarative form that contains no modal verb.

'he realis - irrealis distinction is an integral part of the system of moods. 'here is

contrast between the indicative and the s#b$#nctive in that the indicative marks cla#ses as

realis, whereas the s#b$#nctive marks them as irrealis. "trictly speaking, there is no

typological difference between indicative and s#b$#nctive and realis - irrealis, beca#se both of

them express the distinction between the notional feat#res of realis and irrealis. ;owever

there are some differences in their distrib#tion and syntactic f#nctions (2almer :>>/ @)

+ the s#b$#nctive is fo#nd mainly in s#bordinate cla#ses7

+ irrealis and realis often co+occ#r with other grammatical markers7

+ both are often notionally red#ndant, b#t in different ways, i.e. irrealis beca#se of its

co+occ#rrence with other markers, and s#b$#nctive beca#se its occ#rrence in

s#bordinate cla#ses is determined by the type of complementier7

+ #nlike the indicative+s#b$#nctive system, the realis+irrealis system do not #s#ally occ#r

together with tense system. !n general past and present are marked as realis, whereas

f#t#re is marked as irrealis.

1.1.1. Means of Expressing a Realis Action

!n English there are two ways of expressing a realis action #sing moods

*. the !ndicative Mood7

B. the !mperative Mood.

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A. The Indicative Mood shows that the speaker regards6considers the

action6constr#ction6statement as a real fact.

e.g. he wrote the letter yesterday.

I remember the date of our marriage.

!e has been living in that house for ten years.

My brother is playing football now.

'he indicative mood is #sed for fact#al statements and positive beliefs. 'he

indicative mood is the mood of assertion, it presents the actions as real (or in close relation

to reality) or as fact#al (i.e. as existing in fact). 'he tenses of the indicative mood cover all

the divisions of time on the temporal axis past, present or f#t#re.

The Simple Present expresses several val#es which have as a basic meaning the

fact that the event is sim#ltaneo#s with the present moment now. 'he commonest #se of the2resent "imple is #nrestrictive #se it expresses an action or state that extends over a period

of time centered in the present moment. 'his #se covers two s#bdivisions 3niversal

2resent and ;abit#al 2resent.

'he 2resent "imple denotes generic actions that take place in an #nspecified

period of time which incl#des the moment of speaking they exist now, existed in the past

and probably will exist in the f#t#re. 'he 3niversal present is #sed to express generic or

#niversal tr#ths, facts which are always tr#e.

e.g. The "arth moves round the un.

#ater boils at $%%& '.

#ater freees at %& '.

Aone of these sentences refers to a partic#lar occ#rrence. 'he sentences do not specify a

partic#lar moment or interval of time. 'he verb is completely timeless it refers to what is

tr#e for all time.

'he 2resent "imple denotes habit#al actions, i.e. actions which happen

repeatedly, reg#larly.

e.g. I usually tae the bus to wor.

I never get up late in the morning.

!e goes to the cinema twice a wee.

'he 2resent "imple has several val#es which all have as a basic meaning the fact that the

event is sim#ltaneo#s with the present moment, a semantic fact which is reinforced by the

presence of adverbials also indicating the present.

2resent !ndicative is occasionally #sed to perform speech acts with imperative force s#ch as

orders, commands, re#ests, as in the following sentences

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e.g. *obody leaves+ unless I say so.

,ne of you go and fetch me the dictionaries.

The Present Continos denotes an action having two characteristics

+ an action in progress happening at the moment of speaking (it is viewed at some point

between its beginning and its end7 the action has already beg#n b#t is not finished)7

+ a temporary action, i.e. an action of limited d#ration and not yet finished. 'he

temporary period can be as long as a few years or as short as a few seconds.

e.g. Industry is growing in outh Africa.

-isten It/s raining.

* modal val#e co#ld also be attrib#ted to the #se of 2resent %ontin#o#s of theindicative mood. More often than not, it implies emotional charge and, when associated with

adverbs of indefinite time and fre#ency, it may express admiration, reproach, annoyance,

irritation, disapproval, complaint, etc.

e.g. !e is always helping his fols. (admiration)

he is always wasting her money on trifles. (complaint)

Moreover, the progressive aspect, both present and past, may be #sed to denote actions

permanently characteriing the s#b$ect, and to express modality

e.g . he is always looing down on everybody. (the attit#de of the speaker

is that of disapproval, reproach, or complaint)

The Present Perfectdescribes a past event which is related in some way to the

present time. 'his tense may be said to be a sort of mixt#re of present and past it always

implies a strong connection with the present and is chiefly #sed in conversation, letters,

newspapers, television and radio reports. 'he 2resent 2erfect is #sed to express the

completion or perfection of an event before the present moment now. 'he event happened at

an #nspecified time in the past (the events are located somewhere before the moment of

speaking). 'he 2resent 2erfect is #sed

+ to denote an action or a state beg#n in the past and no longer contin#ing in the moment

of speaking yet implying the res#lt of the respective action or state. Being a tense

belonging to the present gro#p of tenses, this type of the present perfect may be called

res#ltative.

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+ an event6action that took place in the past, with a gap between its completion and the

present moment (i.e. the event has no longer any connection with the present

moment)7

+ the speaker6writer has in mind a definite time at which the event6state took place.

'he 2ast 'ense is #sed

+ as a narrative tense - to denote actions or states that took place in the past7

e.g. At last !ans lost his way and wandered off on the moor and there poor

!ans was drowned. !is body was found the ne3t day by some goatherds.

(,.#ilde+ The evoted 7riend)

+ to denote repeated actions or states that took place in the past. "ometimes the

indication that the action or state is repeated is given by s#ch adverbs as everyday+often+ regularly+ fre8uently.

!t is often considered that the past tense of the indicative mood is often #sed to express

hypothetical, closed or #nreal sate of affairs, b#t in fact it is a case of grammatical

homonymy. !n these sentences, the past tense does not express real past circ#mstances.

Beca#se of the different semantic content, the #se of the past tense in these contexts is

occasionally called modal past tense, and more oftenpast sub9unctive. !n certain contexts, the

term modal past is more appropriate to express the past tense. * possibility to disting#ish the

past s#b$#nctive wo#ld be the #se of the wereforms of to befor all persons, b#t even these

forms co#ld be #sed in free variation with wasfor the first and the third person sing#lar, in

spoken English

e.g. I wish he was:were more friendly with us.

If only she weren/t:wasn/t so rude

!e loos as if he were:was coming from a funeral.

If I was:were you I would get rid of him.

I wish he came later than the others.

If only she new how grateful I am.

2ou behave as if you were mad.

It/s time you went to bed.


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The Past Continosis #sed to express an action in progress at some time in the past it

emphasies d#ration of a single event, i.e. it is #sed for a single event or activity happening at

a given past moment7 the event contin#ed for a temporary period (it contin#ed for a certain

time b#t not #p to the present).

e.g. It was raining all day yesterday.

This time last year I was traveling.

#hile I was driving from ;ome to *aples my car broe down.

'he 2ast %ontin#o#s can be #sed instead of the 2ast "imple when we want to express more

slight differences in meaning. 3nlike the 2ast "imple which expresses a complete action in

the past, the 2ast %ontin#o#s is #sed to express an incomplete action.

e.g. I was reading a boo last night. (an incomplete action, ! didnt finish it) !e was drowning when somebody 9umped into the water and saved him.

The Past Perfect Simpleindicates an action in the past which took place before a

given past moment or before another past action. 'he 2ast 2erfect indicates a time earlier in

the past than the 2ast 'ense. 'he 2ast 2erfect "imple expresses an action completed in the

past before another point of time in the past or before another activity in the past. 'he 2ast

2erfect denotes an action or a state beg#n and finished in the past, prior to another past

moment.

e.g. -ong after the lorry had gone+ after trail of dust had settled+ -anny

stood there. (


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The Past Perfect Continosindicates an action which began before a point in the

past, contin#ed right #p to it and may have contin#ed after. 'he 2ast 2erfect %ontin#o#s

emphasies the d#ration of the activity that was in progress before another point of time or

before another activity in the past.

e. g. I had been waiting for my friend for an hour when he finally turned up.

The police had been looing for the criminal for two years before they

caught him.

!e had been living in that house for ten years when he had to leave the

town.

'he 2ast 2erfect %ontin#o#s expresses an action beg#n before a given past moment b#t no

longer going on at that moment. 'he verb in the 2ast 2erfect %ontin#o#s explains the ca#se ofan effect which is expressed by a verb in the 2ast 'ense.

e.g. I was tired when I arrived home. I had been woring hard allday.

he went to the doctor because she hadn/t been feeling well.

The !tre Simpleis #sed to denote actions to be performed in the f#t#re (i.e. after

the present moment). 'h#s, the 9#t#re "imple is #sed for predictions abo#t the f#t#re (i.e.

describing something we know or expect will happen), for anno#ncements of f#t#re plans.

'he performance of a f#t#re action or the occ#rrence of an event in the f#t#re may be ca#sed

by ob$ective circ#mstances or may depend on a condition.

e.g. My horoscope says that ne3t year will bring me success and happiness.

Tomorrow we shall wor all day long.

Today+ I shall study hard into the night.

4ac will play in another team.

Chen the speaker intends to place the action in the f#t#re, there is a change of attit#de

towards the reality, and the certainty of the f#lfillment of the action is always relative. 'his

places the indicative from the field of fact#al reality in the field of pro$ective reality.

Denerally speaking, will expressions are ambig#o#s. i.e. the hearer may interpret them as

predictions abo#t the f#t#re, as assessments of probability abo#t the present, or they can point

to the time location assigned to the state of affairs, etc.

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The !tre Continos Tensedenotes an action in progress at a given time in the

f#t#re7 it is generally #sed to set #p a backgro#nd or a frame activity that is in progress at a

certain f#t#re time or when another action takes place.

e.g. #hat will you be doing tomorrow at = o/cloc0

The pigeon will be carrying your message tonight+ so you will not be able

to see it here until he returns.

#ill you be staying with us for a long time0

'he 9#t#re %ontin#o#s refers to a f#t#re event which will take place &as a matter of co#rse8.

*ccording to D. eech, &this #sage has grown #p thro#gh the need to have a way of referringto the f#t#re #ncontaminated by factors of volition, intention, plan which enter into the f#t#re

meanings ofshall: willF infinitive, 2resent 2rogressive and Be Doing 'o8 (eech 0:). 'he

9#t#re %ontin#o#s s#ggests that the activity is part of the normal co#rse of events, an activity

witho#t any implication of personal intention. 'he constr#ction is partic#larly #sef#l for

avoiding the s#ggestion of intention in the simple will- constr#ctions.

e.g. I will be writing to Tom. (the 9#t#re %ontin#o#s expresses no intention,

its a mere statement of fact)

#ill you be bringing the bo3es in here0( a #estion abo#t a f#t#re

action. 2ossible answers >I thin I will.?or &*o+ I thin I will leave

them in the hall.8) ('homson G Martinet).

The !tre Perfectexpresses a f#t#re action which will take place or will be

completed before a certain f#t#re moment.

e.g. @y ne3t unday he will have moved into the new house.

I hope they will have repaired this road by the time we come bac.

#e shall have nown each other for five years by the end of this year.

@y the time you tell him that you would lie him to call a spade a

spade+ he will have already told everything he has done.

'he 9#t#re 2erfect can be #sed to express s#ppositions, strong probability, an ass#mption on

the part of the speaker abo#t an action performed at a previo#s moment.

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e.g. *o doubt you will have heard of this writer.(H ! ass#me6s#ppose yo#

have heard of this writer)

They will have got home by now. (H they have s#rely got home by now)

'he 9#t#re 2erfect %ontin#o#s expresses an action beg#n before a given f#t#re moment and

still going on at that f#t#re moment.

e.g. #hen you come bac we shall have been waiting for you for more than

one hour.

@y the end of the month he will have been living here for two years.

*e3t year by this time I shall have been studying three foreign languages

at once for two years.

". The Imperative Mood expresses direct commands, re#ests and prohibitions.

!n many circ#mstances, #sing the !mperative Mood may so#nd bl#nt or even r#de, so it is

often #sed with care. 'he !mperative Mood is #sed to demand or re#ire that an action be

performed. !t is #s#ally fo#nd only in the present tense, second person. 'he !mperative Mood

is very powerf#l. !t is often appropriate to #se the !mperative Mood when giving instr#ctions.

;owever, in other types of doc#ments, s#ch as letters, proced#res or recommendations, the

bare imperative may be too strong. 'o tone down the effect of the imperative, yo# can #se

&politeness8 words, s#ch asplease, or rephrase in the indicative with an a#xiliary verb s#ch as

would.

e.g. *ever put off till tomorrow what you can do today

o not read the lesson

-et/s stop here

on/t loo at your desmate

on/t open the window

2ou mind your own business

'he !mperative is the mood most fre#ently #sed when the speaker wants to impose

something by means of orders, #rge, commands, re#ests, s#ggestions . !mperative sentences

#s#ally lack an overt s#b$ect, b#t their logical s#b$ect refers to the addressee.

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e.g. top that music

@ring me the eys+ please

-eave me alone

Besides the speech acts that the !mperative #s#ally expresses, there are many other sit#ations

when it can be #sed. 9or example, it may occ#r in instr#ctions, in labels, directions of #se,

recipes.

e.g.eep out of reach of children.

o not use near fire or flame.

1.1.#. Means of Expressing an Irrealis Action

!rrealis moods are asset of grammatical moods that indicate that a certain sit#ation

or action is not known to have happened as the speaker is talking. I+ realJ i.e. not real,

non+fact#al, hypothetical, possible, probable, necessary, desirable, etc. !rrealis moods

express th#s an irrealis action. !n English there are two irrealis moods

*. 'he %onditional Mood7

B. 'he "#b$#nctive Mood.

A. The Conditional Mood shows that the speaker considers the action as

conditioned or desirable. Many English grammarians consider that the vario#s

conditional forms are &s#b$#nctives8 e.g. in If he new+ he would come.(Bain, *shton,

etc.), "weet, e#tschbein, !lyish, etc., on the other hand, see a form of the indicative in

new. !t is obvio#s that either point of view may be s#pported. Bain and *shton are

right inasm#ch as they view the problem historically. 'he other grammarians are right

too since they adopt a synchronic standpoint. !n point of form, newis a past indicative7

diachronically, it is a past s#b$#nctive7 the f#nction it discharges is conditional. *s to he

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would come+ it is a conditional present, which sho#ld not be conf#sed with a

s#b$#nctive, be it for the simple reason that (in most cases)a s#b$#nctive cannot form

independent or principal cla#ses. 'he %onditional Mood

a. 'he %onditional 2resent7

b. 'he %onditional 2ast.

a.The PresentConditionalis formed by means of the a#xiliaries sho#ld (/ st

person sing#lar and pl#ral) and wo#ld (:ndand 1rdperson sing#lar and pl#ral) and the

short infinitive of the verb to be con$#gated. 'he %onditional 2resent denotes an action

whose f#lfillment generally depends on the f#lfillment of a condition.

e.g. #ouldn/t you go for a wal if it didn/t rain0Cith verbs expressing desire (to like, to wish, to want), the condition may be excl#ded

altogether, so that the conditional act#ally t#rns into an &optative8.

e.g. I should lie to see the play as soon as possible.

'he conditional may be also excl#ded with certain modal - defective verbs #sed as

forms of the conditional present.

e.g. 2ou should remember his advice.

They night come any time now.

$.The Past Conditionalis formed by means of the a#xiliary sho#ld (/stperson

sing#lar and pl#ral)and wo#ld (:nd and 1rd person sing#lar and pl#ral) and the short

perfect infinitive of the verb to be con$#gated. 'he conditional 2ast denotes an action or

state whose f#lfillment generally depended on the f#lfillment of a condition.

e.g. #e should have gone on with our wor if it had not been so late.

2ou would not have made so many mistaes in your e3ercises if you

had attended the lectures regularly.

Cith verbs expressing desire (to wish, to like, to want), the condition may be

excl#ded.

e.g. he should have lied to mae friends with your sister.

'he conditional mood is #sed to speak of an event whose realiation is dependent on a

certain condition, b#t not excl#sively, in conditional sentences. 'he %onditional Mood is

the form of the verb #sed in conditional sentences to refer to a hypothetical state of

affairs, or an #ncertain event that is contingent on another set of circ#mstances. 'he

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%onditional Mood is th#s similar to the "#b$#nctive Mood, altho#gh lang#ages that have

distinct verb forms for the two #se them in distinct ways.

c. Conditional Sentences

!n grammar, conditional sentences are sentences disc#ssing fact#al implications

or hypothetical sit#ations and their conse#ences. ang#ages #se a variety of

conditional constr#ctions and verb forms to form this kind of sentences. 9#ll conditional

sentences contain two cla#ses the condition or protasis, and the res#lt or apodosis.

e.g. If it rains BconditionC+ the picnic will be cancelled BresultC.

"yntactically, the res#lt is the main cla#se, and the condition is a s#bordinate cla#se. !t is

primarily the properties of the protasis, however, that determine the properties of the

entire sentence.

English conditional sentences can be divided into two broad classes depending

on the form of the verb in the protasis. 'he terms realis and irrealis broadly correspond

to the notions of realis and irrealis modality.

Realis conditions

'he verb in the condition cla#se is in the past tense (with a past tense interpretation) or

in the present tense (with a present or f#t#re interpretation). 'he res#lt cla#se can be in

the past, present or f#t#re. Denerally, conditional sentences of this gro#p are in two

gro#ps, the &ero8 conditional and the potential or indicative conditional. 'his class

incl#des #niversal statements and predictions. 'he &ero8 conditional is formed with

both cla#ses in the present tense. 'his constr#ction is similar across many lang#ages. !t

is #sed to express certainty, an #niversal statement, a law of science etc.

e.g. If you heat water to $%%D'+ it boils.

If you don/t eat for a long time+ you become hungry.

If the sea is stormy+ the waves are high.

!t is different from tr#e conditionals beca#se the introd#ctory &if8 can be replaced by

when or whenever, which cannot be done for tr#e conditionals.

e.g. #hen you heat water to $%%D'+ it boils.

/@


16/41

'he potential or indicative conditional is #sed more generally to express a hypothetical

condition that is potentially tr#e, b#t not yet verified. 'he conditional cla#se is in the

present or past tense and refers to a state or event in the past. 'he res#lt can be in the

past, present or f#t#re.

e.g. If she too the flight yesterday+ she arrived at $%


17/41

Conditional sentences type 1% real conditions

*. the verb in the if+cla#se is in the present tense7 the verb in the main cla#se is in

the f#t#re simple. !t doesnt matter which comes first.

e.g. If he runs heEll get there in time.

The cat will scratch you if you pull her tail.

'his type of sentence implies that the action of the if+cla#se is #ite probable.

B.2ossible variations of the basic form

/. variations of the main cla#se

!nstead of the if F present F f#t#re, we may have

(a) if F present F may6might (possibility)

e.g. If the fog gets ticer the plane may:might be diverted. (


18/41

Conditional sentences type #% possi$le conditions

*. 'he verb in the if+cla#se is in the past tense7 the verb in the main cla#se is in the

conditional tense.

e.g. If I had a map I would lend it to you. (but I don/t have a map)

If someone tried to blacmail me I would tell the police. (but I don/t

e3pect that anyone will try to blacmail me)

'here is no difference in time between the first and the second types of conditional

sentences. 'ype :, like type /, refers to the present or f#t#re, and the past tense in the if+

cla#se is not a tr#e past b#t a s#b$#nctive, which indicates #nreality or improbability.

B. 2ossible variations of the basic form

/. Kariations of the main cla#se

(a) mightor could may be #sed instead of wo#ld

e.g. If you tried again you would succeed. ( certain result)

If you tried again you might succeed. ( possible result)

If I new her number I could ring her up. ( ability)

(b) the contin#o#s conditional form may be #sed instead of the simple conditional

form.

e.g. If I were on holiday I would:might be touring Italy.

(c) if F past tense can be followed by another past tense when we wish to express

a#tomatic or habit#al reactions in the past.

e.g. If anyone interrupted him he got angry.

:. Kariations of the if+cla#se!nstead of the if F simple past, we can have

(a) if F past contin#o#s

e.g. If my car was woring+ I would:could drive you to the station.

(b) if F past perfect

e.g. If he had taen my advice+ he would be a rich man now.

/


19/41

Conditional Sentences type &% impossi$le comditions

*. 'he verb in the if+cla#se is in the past perfect tense7 the verb in the main cla#se is in

the perfect conditional. 'he time is past and the condition cannot be f#lfilled beca#se the

action in the if+cla#se didnt happen.

e.g. If I had nown that you were coming+ I would have met you at the

airport. ( but I didn/t now+ so I didn/t come)

If he had tried to leave the country+ he would have been stopped at the

frontier. F but he didn/t try)

B. 2ossible variations of the basic form

(a) could or mightmay be #sed instead of wo#ld

e.g. If we had found him earlier we could have saved his life. (ability)

If we had found him earlier+ we might have saved his life. (possibility)

(b) the contin#o#s form of the perfect conditional may be #sed

e.g. At the time of the accident I was sitting in the bac of the car+ because

Tom/s boy was sitting beside him in front. If Tom/s boy had not been

there I would have been sitting in front.

(c) we can #se the past perfect contin#o#s in the if+cla#se

e.g. I was wearing a seat belt. If I hadn/t been wearing one+ I would havebeen seriously in9ured.

(d) a combination of types : and 1 is possible

e.g. The plane I intended to catch crashed and everyone was illed. If I

had caught that plane+ I would be dead now.

(e) had can be placed first and the if omitted

e.g. !ad you obeyed orders+ this disaster would not have happened.

/


20/41

". The S$'nctive Mood

'he "#b$#nctive Mood is non+assertive, it presents non+fact#al, hypothetical

statements. By #sing the "#b$#nctive the speaker considers the action not as real (as

existing in reality), b#t as hypothetical (as existing in his mind as a possibility,

necessity, s#pposition, do#bt, wish, p#rpose, etc.)

3nlike the !ndicative cla#ses, the "#b$#nctive cla#ses lack deictic temporal orientation,

i.e. they are not act#alied in time. Chile the !ndicative mood presents the action

expressed by the verb as being close to reality, the "#b$#nctive Mood is #sed to express

either a possible action, or #nreality, improbability, that is something contrary to fact.

'he "#b$#nctive Mood is represented by two forms the "ynthetic forms

referred to as the "ynthetic "#b$#nctive and the *nalytical forms referred to as the

*nalytical "#b$#nctive. 'he "ynthetic "#b$#nctive has forms for the 2resent, 2ast and

2erfect. *n important thing that m#st be pointed o#t is that the so+called &tenses8 of the

"#b$#nctive are improperly called so, since they do not mark temporal distinctions as the

!ndicative Mood does. 'he &tenses8 of the "#b$#nctive are #sed to indicate remoteness

from reality in vario#s degrees. 'he 2resent and past "#b$#nctive are both employed for

present time reference with the difference that the 2resent "#b$#nctive expresses a

greater degree of probability than the 2ast "#b$#nctive, which expresses do#bt.

e.g. It is necessary that he be here.

I wish he were here.

'he absence of these temporal distinctions in the "#b$#nctive mood helps #s

#nderstand why the "#b$#nctive describes only possible, not act#alied events.

A(. The Synthetic S$'nctive 'his form is called "ynthetic on acco#nt of the fact that it does not contain other

means, i.e. a#xiliaries in its composition. 'he "ynthetic "#b$#nctive is #s#ally defined

as a form which is dying o#t as an independent mood. !ndeed, the simple synthetic

forms have lost most of their distinctive endings, so they cannot always be disting#ished

from the forms of the !ndicative Mood.

1. The Present S$'nctive

!ts meaning shows an event which can be f#lfilled in time and which is th#s ass#med

possible. !t is identical to the short !nfinitive and it is #sed

+ to express wishes or set expressions (&9orm#laic "#b$#nctive8)

:>


21/41

e.g. -ong live peace

!eaven help us all

@e that as it may

God bless you

+ in s#bordinate that+cla#ses when the main cla#se expresses a desire, a demand, a

re#irement, an obligation, a necessity, etc. (&Mandative "#b$#nctive8)

a. in direct ob$ect cla#ses, after s#ch verbs like to s#ggest, to order, to

demand, to #rge, to recommend

e.g. he urged that he sit down and listen carefully.

!e suggested that they hold the meeting.

b. in s#b$ect cla#ses after s#ch impersonal constr#ctions as it is F *L.

(necessary:advisable:possible:impossible:essential:important, etc.) e.g. It is necessary that your friend arrive there first.

It is essential that the mission not fail.

c. in attrib#tive+appositive cla#ses, after abstract no#ns belonging to the

same semantic field demand+ re8uest+ suggestion+ proposal, etc.

e.g. There was a proposal that he be elected chairman.

They made the suggestion that our cousin come and e3plain

everything.

#. The Past S$'nctive

!t expresses a hypothetical meaning an #nreal event or state taking place at present. 'he

event or state s#pposed to be happening at the present time is not taking place it is

imaginary, it r#ns to present reality. !t is identical to the 2ast 2erfect of the verb and it is

#sed

+ in conditional sentences to express a 2resent %onditional

e.g. The children would lie this film if they saw it.

If I were you+ I would try to tal to her.

+ in ob$ect cla#ses after verbs as wish, wo#ld rather6sooner. *fter wish the past

"#b$#nctive expresses an #nreal sit#ation in the present, regret abo#t a present action

which does not occ#r. 'he 2ast "#b$#nctive denotes that what we wo#ld like to

happen does not take place.

e.g. I wish I were at the seaside now.

I wish he were here.

:/


22/41


23/41

!t occ#rs in

+ s#b$ect cla#ses after the constr#ction !t is F *L.(advisable+ essential+ desirable+

important+ necessary)

e.g.It is essential that he should be prepared for this.

It is important that he should tell you the truth.

It is necessary that you should be present.

+ after the constr#ction !t is F *L. (amaing+ odd+ strange+ surprising) or it is F no#n (

a pity+ a shame+ a surprise+ a wonder) the analytic "#b$#nctive with sho#ld is an

alternative to the !ndicative Mood.

e.g. i. It is surprising that he should resign.

ii. It is surprising that he has resigned.

i. It is a pity that he should have missed such an opportunity.

ii. It is a pity that he has missed such an opportunity.

'he difference between the two sentences i. and ii. is the difference conveyed by the two

moods "#b$#nctive and !ndicative. 'he "#b$#nctive stresses the eval#ation of a possible

event while the !ndicative stresses the description of a real, act#al event.

*ccording to D. eech, the "#b$#nctive with sho#ld conveys a non+fact#al

meaning which leaves open the #estion of the tr#th or falsehood of the statement. !n the

forms with the s#b$#nctive the very idea is stressed, the eval#ation of a possible event,

while in the forms with the !ndicative the act#al fact is expressed. (the description of a

real, act#al event). 'h#s, the "#b$#nctive formshould have missedstresses a s#pposition,

an idea, that of &missing an opport#nity87 we do not know whether he missed the

opport#nity or not. By resorting to the !ndicative (has missed), the speaker expresses a

fact#al meaning it is a fact that he missed the opport#nity.

+ in conditional cla#ses to #nderline the hypothetical nat#re of the action.

e.g. If she should come here+ what would you tell her0

+ in direct ob$ect cla#ses, after s#ch verbs as to demand+ to insist+ to command+ to propose+

to re8uest+ to suggest+ etc.

e.g. They suggested that you should tell them the truth.

4ohn insists that you shouldn/t smoe.

+ in s#bordinate cla#ses of p#rpose introd#ced by lest+ for fear(that)+ in case

e.g. #e left in a hurry lest she should see us there.

#here would you sleep in case you should miss the train0

+ in concessive cla#ses introd#ced by though+ although+ whatever

:1


24/41

b. 'he "#b$#nctive with May6Might

!t is #sed

+ in exclamatory sentences to convey a wish, s#ch as desire for peoples health,

happiness, s#ccess.

e.g. May all your dreams come true

4ust imagine+ ne3t year we might have a car

+ in s#bordinate cla#ses introd#ced by it is F ad$. (possible+ probable+ liely)

e.g. It is possible that she may come today.

It is probable that our friend might have nown you.

+ in s#bordinate cla#ses of p#rpose introd#ced by that+ so that+ in order that

e.g. !e too a seat in the first row so that he might hear the actorswell.

!e is saving money so that he may buy a car.

+ in cla#ses of concession7 the *nalytic "#b$#nctive with may6might is #sed instead of

the !ndicative Mood to express a s#pposition, a more #ncertain, hypothetical event.

'he cla#ses are introd#ced by compo#nd con$#nctions in -ever (whatever, whoever,

wherever, etc.), no matter (what, who, how, etc.)

e.g. !owever painful it may be to you+ you must now the truth.

*o matter how e3pensive the car might be+ she still wants to buy it.

c. 'he "#b$#nctive with Cill6Co#ld

!t is #sed in

+ direct ob$ect cla#ses after wish, to express a possible action.

e.g. They wish we would pay them a visit.

I wish it would stop snowing.

+ in cla#ses of p#rpose introd#ced byso that.

e.g. he learnt all the new words so that she would be able to translate

the te3t.

!e wrote the notice in several languages so that the foreign

tourists would understand.

d. 'he "#b$#nctive with %an6%o#ld

:4


25/41

!t occ#rs in cla#ses of p#rpose as an alternative constr#ction to may6might. 'he

difference between the two modal a#xiliaries is that may6might is more formal and

indicates a higher degree of #ncertainty7 can6co#ld occ#rs in spoken English and #s#ally

indicates a more real action.

e.g. he studied a lot so that she could pass the difficult e3am.

!e was saving money so that he could buy a new car.

:@


26/41

Chapter #. Modal )er$s Expressing Irrealis Actions

Modality in English has traditionally been interpreted in terms of the #se of

modals, and altho#gh this is not the only reso#rce available for the expression of this

notion, #ndo#btedly, it is the most important one. B#t modality as a whole is not a clear

area of st#dy for several reasons, the most important being the fact that we can identify + *lethic modality on which modal logic foc#ses and which st#dies the speakers

estimation on the logical necessity or possibility of proposition expressed by the #tterance.

+ Epistemic modality is concerned with &the matters of knowledge and belief8,

indicating the speakers (lack of) confidence in the tr#th of the proposition. Ce may talk

of epistemic necessity, logically entailed or practically inferred from what is known, i.e.

ded#ction7 and epistemic possibility, compatible with what is known, i.e. spec#lation.

Aevertheless, in the case of nat#ral lang#ages, epistemic val#es sho#ld not be restricted to

the notions of possibility and necessity, since commitment to the propositions tr#th val#e

is gradable and dependent on the evidence available. 'he degree of knowledge of

#nderstanding, characteriing the speaker incl#des his6her own $#dgements and also the

warrants he6she has in favo#r of his6her sayings. Epistemic modals are #sed to indicate the

possibility or necessity of some piece of knowledge. !n the epistemic #se, modals can be

interpreted as indicating inference or some other process of reasoning involved in coming

to the concl#sion stated in the sentence containing the modal. ;owever, epistemic modals

do not necessarily re#ire inference, reasoning, or evidence. One effect of #sing an

epistemic modal (as opposed to not #sing one) is a general weaking of the speakers

commitment to the tr#th of the sentence containing the modal. ;owever, it is disp#ted

whether the f#nction of modals is to indicate this weakening of commitment, or whether

the weakening is a by+prod#ct of some other aspect of the modals meaning.

+ eontic modality is concerned with the necessity or possibility of acts performed by

morally responsible agents7 it involves the iss#ing of directives and is associated with

notions s#ch as permission or obligation, relating to d#ties in terms of social or

instit#tional laws. eontic modals are those that indicate how the world o#ght to be,

:0


27/41

according to certain norms, expectations, speaker desire, etc. !n other words, deontic #ses

indicate that the state of the world (where world is loosely defined here in terms of the

circ#mstances s#rro#nding the #se of the modal) does not meet some standard or ideal,

whether that standard be social standards (s#ch as laws), personal desires, etc. 'he

sentence containing the deontic modal generally indicates some action that wo#ld change

the world s#ch that it is closer to the standard6ideal.

9rank 2almer (/


28/41

in case of ability, the ob$ective role of physical possibility and conditioning of empirical

circ#mstances cannot be denied or neglected.

Epistemics and deontics are marked by the same means and some sentences

are ambig#o#s in form. 'his has led semanticists to ask what they have in common, and to

spec#late whether one type of modality has developed o#t of the other. One s#ggestion is

that modality in general allows #s to compare the real world with hypothetical versions of

it. 'his approach derives from possible world semantics st#died among others by avid

ewis (/


29/41

sentence containing the modal m#st can that of a statement of inference or knowledge

(ro#ghly, epistemic) or a statement of how something o#ght to be (ro#ghly, deontic). 'he

following pair of examples ill#strate the interpretative difference

($) 4ohn didnKt show up for wor. !e must be sic.

(L) 4ohn didnKt show up for wor. !e must be fired.

'he #se of m#st in (/) is interpreted as indicating statement of a reasoned concl#sion the

speaker concl#des Lohn is sick, beca#se Lohn otherwise wo#ld have shown #p for work. !n

contrast, in (:), m#st is interpreted as a statement of how something o#ght to be the

speaker says that, beca#se Lohn didnt show #p for work, Lohn o#ght to be fired.'he #se of

a modal, partic#larly in cases like example (/) above, contrasts s#btlely with not #sing a

modal, as ill#strated below

() 4ohn must be sic.

() 4ohn is sic.

'he #se of the modal in (1) is interpreted as indicating that some process of reasoning was

#sed to arrive at the concl#sion that Lohn is sick. 'he lack of the modal in (4) tends to

precl#de s#ch an interpretation, and is generally considered to be a statement of fact (i.e.,

the speaker knows that Lohn is sick). !n other words, a speaker wo#ld typically not say (1)

if the speaker knows that (4) is tr#e

:


30/41

#.1. Modal )er$s Expressing Pro$a$ility

.

"#pposition, likelihood, probability, ass#mption, logical ded#ction, i.e. what infer

or concl#de to be the most likely interpretation of a sit#ation or event - is expressed by

must+ will+ would+ should.

Mstis #sed to indicate strong likelihood, a high degree of certainty. Must J

present infinitiveindicates logical ded#ction, s#pposition abo#t a present action.

e.g. That church must be very old.

It is highly probable that the church is very old.

I see a man with a white cane waling down in the streetN he must be

blind O he is probably blind.

Must J perfect infinitive indicates logical ded#ction, ass#mption abo#t a past

action

e.g. !e must have left his umbrella on the bus. (P I suppose he left it)

This house must have been built over $%% years ago.

Mustis #sed to express logical ded#ction only in affirmative sentences. !ninterrogative and negative sentences canis #sed instead.

e.g. &There/s the doorbell. It must be Tom.?

>It can/t be Tom. It/s only 5 o/cloc.?

Shold and *ght toare weaker e#ivalents of m#st in the sense of ded#ction

they express a lesser degree of certainty than must. "ho#ld6o#ght to F present infinitive

have present time reference they express s#pposition with reference to the present.

E.g. 4udging by the accident he should be a foreigner.

They ought to be home by now.

"ho#ld6o#ght to F past infinitive have past time reference7 they express ass#mption abo#t

a past action.

e.g. They should have finished by now.

2ou should have seen the play.

+illis another modal verb #sed to express s#ppositions abo#t an action. Cill F

present infinitive expresses s#pposition abo#t a present state of affairs.

1>


31/41

e.g. That will be the hotel we are looing for. (Pthat is probably the

hotel)

2ou will be wondering why I ased you to come. (P you are

probably wondering why I ased you to come)

This will be his house. (it is liely that this is his house)

Cill F perfect infinitive expresses a present s#pposition abo#t a past state of affairs.

e.g. They will have arrived by now. FPit is liely that they have arrived

by now)

2ou will have heard the news. (you have probably heard the news)

+old is weaker than will in expressing s#ppositions. Co#ld F present infinitive

a tentative ass#mption, s#pposition abo#t a present state of affairs. e.g. #ould your name be @rown by chance0

>I don/t understand the article in the newspaper.?

>*o you wouldn/t? (I didn/t e3pect you would. It is unliely that you

would understand it perhaps because it is too difficult or perhaps

because you/re too stupid.)

Co#ld F perfect infinitive expresses s#pposition with reference to past time.

e.g. >I met a charming girl at your party last night.?

>Ah+ that would have been my cousin Mary.?

#.#. Modal )er$s Expressing Possi$ility

2ossibility is expressed by the modal verbs may6might, can6co#ld.

/. 2resent or f#t#re time reference

a. affirmative sentences may is #sed to denote fact#al, act#al possibility (i.e. the

act#al chances of something happening), while can is #sed to denote general, theoretical

possibility.

e.g. It may rain tonight.

They may be moving to @ucharest ne3t year.

Accidents can happen.

-ightning can be very dangerous.

The road may be bloced. (it is possible that the road is bloced)

1/


32/41

The road can be bloced. (P it is possible to bloc the road)

Might and coldexpress a hypothetical possibility, i.e. a more remote possibility or a

higher degree of #ncertainty, of do#bt than may6can.

e.g. >#hy isn/t Tom in class0? >I don/t now 1 he might be ill.?

I wonder where Tom is.? >!e may:might:could be in the library.?

(perhaps he is )

on/t drive so fastN you could have an accident.

b. !nterrogative sentences can is very common in interrogative and negative sentences

where may is rather infre#ent7 may does not normally occ#r in #estions7 in the

interrogative may is replaced by can6co#ld, it is likely.

e.g. #ho can be at the door0 'an it be 4ohn0

It may be true H 'an it:this be true0

c.Aegative sentences May6might occ#r in negative sentences only when the scope of

negation excl#des the meaning of the modal (the modal verb is not negated), i.e. may not

means &it is possible that something does not happen.8

e.g. !e may not be at school P It is possible that he isn/t at school.

They may not bother to come if it rains. P It is possible that they will

not come.

!n negative sentences with can6co#ld the scope of negation incl#des the modal, i.e. cannot

means &it is not possible, it is impossible8

e.g. !e can/t be at school. P It is not possible:it is impossible that he should

be at school.

!e can/t be older than fifty.

:.2ast time reference

a. might and co#ld are #sed

i. after a past reporting verb

e.g.4ohn said it might rain.

Ann said they might leave soon.

1:


33/41

ii. if there is an adverb denoting past time

e.g. In those days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime.

b. may-might-can-coldF perfect infinitive express spec#lations abo#t past actions,

i.e. the constr#ction expresses the possibility that an action happened in the past.

e.g. 2ou were stupid to try climbing upthereN you could have broen your

leg.

!e may have been ill.

2ou shouldn/t have left him alone+ he might have got lost.

The ban could have made a mistae+ I should have got my money.

#.&. Com$inations of exical and /rammatical Means Expressing

Irrealis Actions. Pragmatic )ales

exical means of expressing modality imply the #sage of different parts of

speech, so words with f#ll semantic meaning to convey a certain type of modality. 'h#s,

the concept of possibility can be expressed by the #se of

+ ad$ectivespossible+ impossible+ lielyQ

e.g. It is possible that he will come tomorrow P he may come tomorrow.

+ adverbspossibly+ maybe+ perhapsQ

e.g.


34/41

!e has probably forgotten his umbrella on the bus.

+ no#nsN probability+ chance+ lielihoodQ

e.g. There is a probability that this is his house.

+ verbal expressionsN e3pect+ suppose+ daresay+ be going toQ

e.g. Tae an umbrellaN it/s going to rain. (Pit will probably rain)

2ou/re tired+ I daresay. (Pyou must be tired)

!n most cases, lexical means of expressing modality are combined with grammatical

means to obtain an increased stylistic effect.

e.g. Maybe you could possibly help me.

There is an e3tremely remote possibility that you might come

tomorrow.

This will probably be his house.!n most dialects of English not more than one modal verb can #s#ally occ#r within the

same cla#se. B#t both a modal verb and a modal adverb may be combined. Chen this

happens, we sho#ld disting#ish between harmonic and non+harmonic combinations.

Michael ;alliday pointed o#t that the adverb and the modal verb may, and #s#ally do,

reinforce each other in a modally harmonic combination. Chen different types of

modality are expressed, the combination is non+harmonic.

e.g. !e may possibly have forgotten P he may have forgotten J he has

possibly forgotten. (double realiation of a single type of modality)

!e may certainly have forgotten H it is certainly the case that he may

have forgotten or it may be the case that he certainly has forgotten. 'he combination is

non+harmonic beca#se the modal and the adverb express different degrees of intensity of

the same type of modality. 'o avoid ambig#ity, if the intended meaning is the former, it is

better to place the adverb in a position in which to have the modal in its scope (domain)

'ertainly+ he may have forgotten. %ertainly is connected to the s#b$ects opinion that there

is a good chance for him to have forgotten &'u siguranta e3ista posibilitateaca el sa fi

uitat? !t remains to disc#ss whether the combination leads #s to the level of probability.

9or the latter example, the modal takes scope over the adverb, so the expressed modality

is more tentative, weaker than in the previo#s example Rar putea ca el chiar sa fi uitat.

Modal verbs enter different collocations with modal verbs, #s#ally the res#lt being

a harmonic combination, which means that the lexical and the grammatical element as

epistemic #antifiers are of the same type strong, moderate or weak.

14


35/41

Chapter &. Indicative vs. S$'nctive in Speech Acts.

Pragmatic )ales of Irrealis !orms

Modality distinctions in English are marked by vario#s means incl#ding adverbs

and modal verbs. Chen s#ch distinctions are marked by the verb ending which form distinct

con$#gations, there is a grammatical tradition of calling these moods. !n most lang#ages thereis a distinction between a realis and an irrealis mood. ;owever, lang#ages vary in the speech

acts categories that are treated as 5ealis and !rrealis, that is one lang#age may mark

commands as 5ealis, and another nay mark them as !rrealis, while another may not treat them

as a system of modality at all.

Many E#ropean lang#ages #se the !ndicative and the "#b$#nctive to disting#ish

between 5ealis and !rrealis. ;owever, many a#thors treat the distinction between !ndicative

and "#b$#nctive in terms of &assertion8 and &non+assertion8. #nn (/


36/41

comm#nication and expresses his attit#de. 'he category of mood itself represents the

appreciation of the speaker towards the action, the way he presents the events. 'he val#es of

this category are based on the distinction reality6non+reality, possibility.

'he semantics of moods can change according to the context, according to the

temporal relation in which the action of the verb is incl#ded, or according to the syntactic

relationship the predicate verb is involved in. 9rom the f#ndamental val#e of each mood,

different meanings determined by the context are derived. !t is the context that facilitates the

#se of one mood or another.

'here are several differences between the type of meaning. 'he f#ndamental

difference is that the fact#al meaning is characteried by positive tr#th+commitment, the

theoretical meaning is characteried by tr#th+ne#trality, and the hypothetical meaning by

negative tr#th+commitment. Chat makes one type of meaning differ from the other two is thatfact#al sentences inform #s abo#t a fact, #nlike the theoretical sentences which inform #s

abo#t an idea and hypothetical sentences which make the ass#mption that the action did not,

does not, or will not take place, the speaker meaning the reverse.

'he selection of the right moods (indicative vs. s#b$#nctive) depends on the

choice of the locator and is determined by pragmatic reasons

+ need for clarity from the illoc#tionary point of view7

+ perspective on the event ( fact vs. potential action).

'here are several types of s#bordinate cla#ses where both the indicative and the

s#b$#nctive mood can be #sed, depending on the speakers attit#de towards the action or state

expressed by the #tterance.

!n the case of "#b$ect %la#ses we can #se either the indicative or the s#b$#nctive

after verbs expressing psychological reactions s#ch as the verbs alarm, amae, irritate, the

ad$ectives amaing, disgracef#l, odd, strange, s#rprising, the no#ns pity, s#rprise, shame.

'here is a different perspective on the event7 the indicative is #sed when reference is made to

an act#ally existing state of things, the s#b$#nctive stresses the s#b$ective reaction, emotional

attit#de of the speaker7 the s#b$#nctive is #sed when the idea or feeling is emphasied.

e.g. It is surprising that he is leaving. ( the action of leaving is an assumed fact)

It is surprising that he should leave. ( the very idea of him leaving is

surprising)

!t is also the case of Ob$ect %la#ses. Chen the verb in the main cla#se expresses

a re#est, recommendation or order, the "#b$#nctive mood is employed.

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'he speaker may also make a choice between the !ndicative and the "#b$#nctive in 5elative

%la#ses. 'he #se of the !ndicative or the "#b$#nctive stresses the difference between an action

seen as real or as possible.

e.g. My suggestion that he is being silly upset him.(a real fact)

My suggestion that he should tae a wal was accepted. (a possible

action)

'he choice of the !ndicative or the "#b$#nctive in the *dverbial %la#se of

%omparison and %oncession depends on the speakers attit#de towards the action. 'he

*dverbial %la#se of %omparison and %oncession indicates comparison with some

hypothetical circ#mstances. 'he hypothetical nat#re of s#ch cla#ses warrants the presence in

s#ch cla#ses of a form of the s#b$#nctive.

e.g. !e wals as if he were a ing. (but he isn/t) 4ohn behaves as if he were a child.

!n collo#ial English, the !ndicative may also appear in s#ch cla#ses the #se of

the present indicative expresses fact#al meaning, an ass#mption that ranges from tentativeness

to likelihood.

e.g. It loos as if it/s going to snow.

he acts as if she has a secret.

'here are cases when different s#bordinate cla#ses, introd#ced by the same

introd#ctory element, have different meaning depending on the mood employed in that cla#se.

'he mood change determines a change of meaning at the level of the whole #tterance. !t is the

case of the *dverbial %la#se of 2#rpose and the *dverbial %la#se of 5es#lt. 'he first type of

s#bordinate #s#ally contains a s#b$#nctive form, while the later one re#ires the #se of the

indicative mood. 'he difference between these s#bordinate cla#ses is that cla#ses of res#lt are

rather fact#al than s#ppositional.

e.g. I was tired+ so that I too a few days off.

!e was speaing very fast so that nobody understood what he was

saying.

I was paying attention to him so that I should hear every word he was

saying.

I lent him the money so that he could buy the boo he needed.

'he *dverbial %la#se of Aegative 2#rpose contains an *nalytic "#b$#nctive

formed by means of the a#xiliaries will6wo#ld, shall6sho#ld, may6might or the !ndicative

mood. *s with cla#ses of affirmative p#rpose, the choice of the a#xiliaries depends on the

tense of the verb in the main cla#se and on the introd#ctory con$#nction for fear that may be

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followed by any of the three a#xiliaries, so that is followed by shall, while lest and in case by

sho#ld. 'he indicative mood is #sed only in cla#ses introd#ced by in case.

e.g. I will help him in case he should be in trouble.

I will help him in case he is in trouble.

%la#ses of 5es#lt overlap with those of p#rpose both in meaning and in form.

'he chief difference is that cla#ses of res#lt are fact#al rather than s#ppositional, hence they

may contain an ordinary verb witho#t a modal a#xiliary. Chen the cla#se contains a modal

a#xiliary, it may be ambig#o#s between a cla#se of p#rpose and one of res#lt.

'he constr#ctions with wish, if only, its time re#ire only hypothetical verbs

forms, i.e. the s#b$#nctive. 'he constr#ctions with s#ppose, as if, as tho#gh, allow a choice

between hypothetical and non+hypothetical forms.

e.g. I wish I lived in the mountains. (but I don/t) I wish I could tae care of everything myself. (but I can/t)

I wish I had told you the truth. (I/m sorry I didn/t)

If only you had been there last night.

It/s time we were at school.

!e behaves as if he were a ing.

'he s#rface str#ct#re of some dependent cla#ses marked by as if might be

misleading7 they might be considered to be synonymo#s b#t they are not. 'he mood #sed in

the dependent cla#se helps to clear #p the meaning

e.g. he acts as she new the bare truth.

he acts as if she nows the bare truth.

'he second ma$or difference between the two sentences with the indicative

(knows) leaves the #estion of whether she knows the tr#th open, whereas the sentence with

knew pres#pposes that she does not know the tr#th. !t is worth pointing o#t that the present

s#b$#nctive may alternate with the present indicative in the that+cla#ses, b#t there is a

difference in meaning.

e.g. I insist that he should learn more. (order and necessity)

I insist that he learn more. (order)

I insist that he does learn more. ( emphatic statementN I now he really

does)

I insist that he learns more. ( statementN I now he usually does)

'he choice of the indicative mood is related to assertion, whereas the choice of the

s#b$#nctive mood is related to non+assertion. 'he choice of the irrealis maker, the s#b$#nctive,

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e.g. he was arranging the fruits on the counter so that the spots should

not show. (possibility)

he was arranging the fruits on the counter so that the spots would not

show. (fact)

he ept glancing round the room as if she were looing for someone.

(but she wasn/t+ action contrary to fact)

he ept glancing round the room as if she was looing for someone.

(she didn/t now where her friend was+ real fact)

'he #se of the s#b$#nctive or the indicative mood depends on the lang#age register.

'he s#b$#nctive is characteristic for literary, formal English, whereas the indicative is largely

#sed in ordinary, collo#ial English.

e.g. They left the room so that the baby might sleep 8uietly.(formal "nglish)

They left the room so that the baby sleeps 8uietly. (collo8uial "nglish)

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Lucrare Licenta Pt Imprimat

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