Istoria Japoniei in Perioade Si Date

8/8/2019 Istoria Japoniei in Perioade Si Date

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Japanese History: Japanese Historical Eras

The following is a chronological/topical index. For a listing of the most recent

additions, look here.

Japanese Historical Eras

Prehistory 13000 - 10000 BC

Jomon 10000 - 300

Yayoi 300 BC - 300 AD

Kofun 300 - 538

Asuka 552-646

Nara 646-794

- Nara Timeline- Prince Shotoku's Seventeen-Article Constitution

- Taika Reform Edicts

Heian 794-1185

- Heian Timeline

Kamakura 1185 - 1392

- Kamakura Dai Butsu / Great Buddha

- Kamakura Era Films

Ashikaga / Muromachi 1392-1568

Sengoku / Momoyama 1568-1615

- Sengoku Timeline- Pictoral Map of Northern (Tohoku) Sengoku-Era Daimy- Pictoral Map of Southern (Kansai) Sengoku-Era Daimy

- Sengoku Era Films

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/nara.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/jushichijokenpo.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/taikareform.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/heian.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/kamakurabuddha.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/kamakura_era/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku_daimyo_tohoku.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku_daimyo_kansai.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/sengoku_era/index.shtml


http://www.sarudama.com/history/nara.shtml


http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/taikareform.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/heian.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/kamakurabuddha.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/kamakura_era/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku_daimyo_tohoku.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/history/sengoku_daimyo_kansai.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/sengoku_era/index.shtml



Tokugawa / Edo 1615-1867

- Tokugawa Era Films

Meiji Era 1867-1912

- Meiji Constitution / Constitution of the Empire of Japa

- Meiji Era Films

Taisho 1912-1926

Showa 1926-1989

- Post-War Era Films

Heisei 1989-present

Prince Shotoku's Seventeen-Article Constitution

[Jushichijo Kenpo]

十七条憲法

Of all the names within early Japanese history, Prince Shotoku

(574-622) shines far more brightly than any of the rest. He was

the offspring of his father Emperor Yomei (用明天皇) and his

mother the Empress Anahobe no Hashihito no Himemiko (穴穂

部間人皇女). His parents were children of Emperor Kimmei by

different mothers. Unlike any of his predecessors, Shotoku

turned whole-heartedly toward Chinese culture for help with legal and commonplace notions.

Prince Shotoku committed himself (and his court) to acquiring the skill of reading and writing

Chinese, and personally delved into Chinese philosophy. It is during this time that Shotoku

became thoroughly familar with Buddhism and Confucianism, both of which became core

elements of his subsequent approaches to government and social philosophy.

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/tokugawa_edo/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/meijikenpo.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/meiji_era/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/postwar/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/tokugawa_edo/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_history/meijikenpo.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/meiji_era/index.shtml

http://www.sarudama.com/japanese_movies/jidaigeki_historical/postwar/index.shtml



One of Prince Shotoku's most important written pieces was the so-called "Seventeen-Article

Constitution" completed in 604 AD. The title "constitution" does not accurately describe Prince

Shotoku's document, as most contemporary scholars will eagerly testify to. Rather, Shotoku's

document sets forth 17 specific laws or principles applied (by him) to nation-wide behavior.

The following is Prince Shotoku's Seventeen-Article Constitution:

604 AD, 4th Month, 3rd day.

The Prince Imperial Shotoku in person prepared laws for the first time. There were seventeen

clauses, as follows:

(1) Harmony should be valued and quarrels should be avoided. Everyone has his biases, and

few men are far-sighted. Therefore some disobey their lords and fathers and keep up feuds with

their neighbors. But when the superiors are in harmony with each other and the inferiors are

friendly, then affairs are discussed quietly and the right view of matters prevails.

(2) The three treasures, which are Buddha, the (Buddhist) Law and the (Buddhist) Priesthood;

should be given sincere reverence, for they are the final refuge of all living things. Few men are

so bad that they cannot be taught their truth.

(3) Do not fail to obey the commands of your Sovereign. He is like Heaven, which is above the

Earth, and the vassal is like the Earth, which bears up Heaven. When Heaven and Earth are

properly in place, the four seasons follow their course and all is well in Nature. But if the Earth

attempts to take the place of Heaven, Heaven would simply fall in ruin. That is why the vassal

listens when the lord speaks, and the inferior obeys when the superior acts. Consequently when

you receive the commands of your Sovereign, do not fail to carry them out or ruin will be the

natural result.

(4) The Ministers and officials of the state should make proper behavior their first principle, for if the superiors do not behave properly, the inferiors are disorderly; if inferiors behave improperly,

offenses will naturally result. Therefore when lord and vassal behave with propriety, the

distinctions of rank are not confused: when the people behave properly the Government will be

in good order.



(5) Deal impartially with the legal complaints which are submitted to you. If the man who is to

decide suits at law makes gain his motive, and hears cases with a view to receiving bribes, then

the suits of the rich man will be like a stone flung into water, meeting no resistance, while the

complaints of the poor will be like water thrown upon a stone. In these circumstances the poor

man will not know where to go, nor will he behave as he should.

(6) Punish the evil and reward the good. This was the excellent rule of antiquity. Therefore do

not hide the good qualities of others or fail to correct what is wrong when you see it. Flatterers

and deceivers are a sharp weapon for the overthrow of the state, and a sharp sword for the

destruction of the people. Men of this kind are never loyal to their lord, or to the people. All this is

a source of serious civil disturbances.

(7) Every man has his own work. Do not let the spheres of duty be confused. When wise menare entrusted with office, the sound of praise arises. If corrupt men hold office, disasters and

tumult multiply. In all things, whether great or small, find the right man and they will be well

managed. Therefore the wise sovereigns of antiquity sought the man to fill the office, and not the

office to suit the man. If this is done the state will be lasting and the realm will be free from

danger.

(8) Ministers and officials should attend the Court early in the morning and retire late, for the

whole day is hardly enough for the accomplishment of state business. If one is late in attendingCourt, emergencies cannot be met; if officials retire early, the work cannot be completed.

(9) Good faith is the foundation of right. In everything let there be good faith, for if the lord and

the vassal keep faith with one another, what cannot be accomplished? If the lord and the vassal

do not keep faith with each other, everything will end in failure.

(10) Let us control ourselves and not be resentful when others disagree with us, for all men have

hearts and each heart has its own leanings. The right of others is our wrong, and our right is

their wrong. We are not unquestionably sages, nor are they unquestionably fools. Both of us are

simply ordinary men. How can anyone lay down a rule by which to distinguish right from wrong?

For we are all wise sometimes and foolish at others. Therefore, though others give way to anger,

let us on the contrary dread our own faults, and though we may think we alone are in the right,

let us follow the majority and act like them.



(11) Know the difference between merit and demerit, and deal out to each its reward and

punishment. In these days, reward does not always follow merit, or punishment follow crime.

You high officials who have charge of public affairs, make it your business to give clear rewards

and punishments.

(12) Do not let the local nobility levy taxes on the people. There cannot be two lords in a country;

the people cannot have two masters. The sovereign is the sole master of the people of the

whole realm, and the officials that he appoints are all his subjects. How can they presume to levy

taxes on the people?

(13) All people entrusted with office should attend equally to their duties. Their work may

sometimes be interrupted due to illness or their being sent on missions. But whenever they are

able to attend to business they should do so as if they knew what it was about and not obstructpublic affairs on the grounds they are not personally familiar with them.

(14) Do not be envious! For if we envy others, then they in turn will envy us. The evils of envy

know no limit. If others surpass us in intelligence, we are not pleased; if they are more able, we

are envious. But if we do not find wise men and sages, how shall the realm be governed?

(15) To subordinate private interests to the public good--that is the path of a vassal. Now if a

man is influenced by private motives, he will be resentful, and if he is influenced by resentment

he will fail to act harmoniously with others. If he fails to act harmoniously with others, the public

interest will suffer. Resentment interferes with order and is subversive of law.

(16) Employ the people in forced labor at seasonable times. This is an ancient and excellent

rule. Employ them in the winter months when they are at leisure, but not from Spring to Autumn,

when they are busy with agriculture or with the mulberry trees (the leaves of which are fed to

silkworms). For if they do not attend to agriculture, what will there be to eat? If they do not attend

to the mulberry trees, what will there be for clothing?

(17) Decisions on important matters should not be made by one person alone. They should be

discussed with many people. Small matters are of less consequence and it is unnecessary to

consult a number of people. It is only in the case of important affairs, when there is a suspicion

that they may miscarry, that one should consult with others, so as to arrive at the right

conclusion.



Taika Reform Edicts - Taika no Kaishin

Category: Japanese History Taika Reform Edicts

[Taika no Kaishin]

大化改新 I've recently written regarding the unique role of the Meiji

Constitution in establishing the Emperor's governance

over the national politics of that era. However, it would be

innacurate (for me) to suggest that the Japanese did not already possess a long-

standing notion of the Emperor's island-wide pre-eminence. The two primary

instances of this are Prince Shotoku's "Constitution" of 604 AD and the Taika

Reform Edicts of 645-650 AD.

We'll cover here the Taika Reform Edicts (and elsewhere Shotoku's Constitution)

which, apparently for the first time, subordinated local governance to the national

Emperor.

You'll notice that 645 AD is very early into the Japanese literary timeline. (For

example, Japan's unique writing style of hiragana is the much later creation of

Kobo Daishi (774 - 835 / aka Kukai).) Thus, in essence, everything written during

this era is wholly in the (ancient) Chinese language, using Chinese terminology

and vocabulary definitions. And as students of language fully realize, words

require concepts. Perhaps primarily for this reason, the Taika Reform Edicts were

written under the supervision of Confucian scholars. (During this era, up to the

Maoist Revolution, China viewed the Confucian texts as the primary insight for

proper (Moral) government).









It could be argued that at this this moment in time, Japan cultivated much of its

understanding of the divine status of its Emperor directly from Chinese intuitions. It

is here, for example, that the Japanese ruler was no longer described as a

regional leader, but rather a "Tenno" () or "heavenly Soveriegn", a title used in

Japan to this day.

There's a bit of ambiguiuty which arises regarding the specific Taika Reform

Edicts. There were in fact only four edicts declared during the period of 645 to

650 AD. The confusion arises from that fact that during this same period, several

other statements and "decrees" were made by Emperor Kotoku which undoudtely

relate to the decrees but are not themselves such.

Although I provide the text of the Edicts below, the following summaries are

undoubtedly helpful:

Corruption of Regional Officials

- abolished private ownership of land & workers, deriving from "namesake",

succession, or other means of appropriation.

Regulation of the Capital; Taxes; Women

- established a central capital metropolitan region, called the Kinai (‹E“à), or

Inner Provinces. A capital city was to be built there, and governors would be

appointed.

The Role of the Emperor

- established population registers, as well as the redistribution of rice-

cultivating land equitably. It also provided for the appointment of rural village

heads.

The Monarchy and the People

- abolished the old forms of taxes, and established a new system.



Corruption of Regional Officials

645 AD 8th Month 19th day

Commissioners were sent to all the provinces to take a record of the total numbers

of the people. The Emperor on this occasion made an edict, as follows:

"In the times of all the Emperors, from antiquity downwards, subjects have been

set apart for the purpose of making notable their reigns and handing down their

names to posterity. Now the Omi 11 and Muraji 12, the Tomo no Miyakko 5 and

the Kuni no Miyakko 2, have each one set apart their own vassals, whom they

compel to labor at their arbitrary pleasure. Moreover, they cut off the hills and

seas, the woods and plains, the ponds and rice-fields belonging to the provinces

and districts, and appropriate them to themselves. Their contests are never-

ceasing. Some engross to themselves many tens of thousands of shiro 13 of rice-

land, while others possess in all patches of ground too small to stick a needle into.

When the time comes for the payment of taxes, the Omi, the Muraji, and the Tomo

no Miyakko, first collect them for themselves and then hand over a share. In the

case of repairs to palaces or the construction of misasagi 14, they each bring their own vassals, and do the work according to circumstances. The Book of Changes

15 says, " Diminish that which is above: increase that which is below: if measures

are framed according to the regulations, the resources of the State suffer no injury,

and the people receive no hurt."

"At the present time, the people are still few. And yet the powerful cut off portions

of land and water, and converting them into private ground, sell it to the people,

demanding the price yearly. From this time forward the sale of land is not allowed.

Let no man without due authority make himself a landlord, engrossing to himself

that which belongs to the helpless."

Regulation of the Capital; Taxes; Women



646 AD 1st month, 1st day

As soon as the ceremonies of the new year's congratulations were over, the

Emperor promulgated an edict of reforms, as follows:

"I. Let the people established by the ancient Emperors, etc., as representatives of

children be abolished, also the Miyake 16 of various places and the people owned

as serfs by the Wake, 17 the Omi, the Muraji, the Tomo no Miyakko, the Kuni no

Miyakko and the Mura no Obito. 18 Let the farmsteads in various places be

abolished."

"Further We say. It is the business of the Daibu to govern the people. If they

discharge this duty thoroughly, the people have trust in them, and an increase of

their revenue is therefore for the good of the people.

II. The capital is for the first time to be regulated, and Governors appointed for the

Home provinces and districts. 20 Let barriers, outposts,guards, and post-horses,

both special and ordinary, be provided, bell-tokens made, 21 and mountains and

rivers regulated. 22

For each ward in the capital let there be appointed one alderman, and for four

wards one chief alderman, who shall be charged with the superintendence of the

population, and the examination of criminal matters. For appointment as chief

aldermen of wards let men be taken belonging to the wards, of unblemished

character, firm and upright, so that they may fitly sustain the duties of the time. For

appointments as aldermen, whether of rural townships or of city wards, let ordinary

subjects be taken belonging to the township or ward, of good character and solid

capacity. If such men are not to be found in the township or ward in question, it is

permitted to select and employ men of the adjoining township or ward.

The Home provinces shall include the region from the River Yokogaha at Nabari

on the east, from Mount Senoyama in Kii on the south, from Kushibuchi in Akashi



on the west, and from Mount Afusaka-yama in Sasanami in Afumi on the north.

Districts of forty townships 23 are constituted Greater Districts, of from thirty to four

townships are constituted Middle Districts, and of three or fewer townships are

constituted Lesser Districts. For the district authorities, of whatever class, let therebe taken Kuni no Miyakko 2 of unblemished character, such as may fitly sustain

the duties of the time, and made Tairei and Shorei. 24 Let men of solid capacity

and intelligence who are skilled in writing and arithmetic be appointed assistants

and clerks.

The number of special or ordinary post-horses given shall in all cases follow the

number of marks on the posting bell-tokens. When bell-tokens are given to

(officials of) the provinces and barriers, let them be held in both cases by the chief

official, or in his absence by the assistant official.

III. Let there now be provided for the first time registers of population, books of

account and a system of the receipt and re-granting of distribution-land.

Let every fifty houses be reckoned a township, and in every township let there be

one alderman who shall be charged with the superintendence of the registers of

population, the direction of the sowing of crops and the cultivation of mulberry

trees, the prevention and examination of offences, and the enforcement of the

payment of taxes and of forced labor.

For rice-land, thirty paces in length by twelve paces in breadth shall be reckoned a

tan. Ten tan make one cho. For each tan the tax is two sheaves and two bundles

(such as can be grasped in the hand) of rice; for each cho the tax is twenty-two

sheaves of rice. On mountains or in valleys where the land is precipitous, or in

remote places where the population is scanty, such arrangements are to be made

as may be convenient.



IV. The old taxes and forced labor are abolished, and a system of commuted taxes

instituted. These shall consist of fine silks, coarse silks, raw silk, and floss silk, all

in accordance with what is produced in the locality. For each cho of rice land the

rate is ten feet of fine silk, or for four cho one piece forty feet in length by two and ahalf feet in width. For coarse silk the rate is twenty feet (per cho), or one piece for

every two cho of the same length and width as the fine silk. For cloth the rate is

forty feet of the same dimensions as the fine and coarse silk, i.e. one tan for each

cho. Let there be levied separately a commuted house tax. All houses shall pay

each twelve feet of cloth. The extra articles of this tax, as well as salt and offerings,

will depend on what is produced in the locality.

For horses for the public service, let every hundred houses contribute one horse of

medium quality. Or if the horse is of superior quality, let one be contributed by

every two hundred houses. If the horses have to be purchased, the price shall be

made up by a payment from each house of twelve feet of cloth.

As to weapons, each person shall contribute a sword, armour, bow and arrows, a

flag, and a drum.

For servants, the old system, by which one servant was provided by every thirty

houses, is altered, and one servant is to be furnished from every fifty houses [one

is for employment as a menial servant] for allotment to the various functionaries.

Fifty houses shall be allotted to provide rations for one servant, and one house

shall contribute twenty two feet of cloth and five masu 25 of rice in lieu of service.

For waiting-women in the Palace, let there be furnished the sisters or daughters of

district officials of the rank of Shorei or upwards?good-looking women [with one

male and two female servants to attend on them], and let 100 houses be allotted to

provide rations for one waiting-woman. The cloth and rice supplied in lieu of

service shall, in every case, follow the same rule as for servants."



The Role of the Emperor

646 AD 8th month, 14th day

An edict was issued, saying,

"Going back to the origin of things, we find that it is Heaven and Earth with the

male and female principles of nature, 29 which guard the four seasons from

mutual confusion. We find, more over, that it is this Heaven and Earth which

produces the ten thousand things. Amongst these ten thousand things Man is the

most miraculously gifted. Among the most miraculously gifted beings, the sage

takes the position of ruler. Therefore the Sage Rulers, that is, the Emperors, take

Heaven as their model in ruling the World, and never for a moment dismiss from

their breasts the thought of how men shall gain their fit place. . . ."

The Monarchy and the People

647 AD 4th month, 29th day

An edict was issued as follows,

"The Empire was entrusted (by the Sun-Goddess to her descendants, with the

words) 'My children, in their capacity as Deities, shall rule it.' For this reason, this

country, since Heaven and Earth began, has been a monarchy. From the time that

Our Imperial ancestor first ruled the land, there has been great concord in the

Empire, and there has never been any factiousness. In recent times, however, the

names, first of the Gods, and then of the Emperors, have in some cases been

separated (from their proper application) and converted into the Uji of Omi or

Muraji, or they have been separated and made the qualifications of Miyakko, etc.

In consequence of this, the minds of the people of the whole country take a strong

partisan bias, and conceiving a deep sense of the "me" and "you," hold firmly each

to their names. Moreover the feeble and incompetent Omi, 11 Muraji, 12 Tomo no



Miyakko 5 and Kuni no Miyakko 2 make of such names their family names; and so

the names of Gods and the names of sovereigns are applied to persons and

places in an unauthorized manner, in accordance with the bent of their own

feelings. Now, by using the names of Gods and the names of sovereigns asbribes, they draw to themselves the slaves of others, and so bring dishonor upon

unspotted names.

The consequence is that the minds of the people have become unsettled and the

government of the country cannot be carried on. The duty has therefore now

devolved on Us in Our capacity as Celestial Divinity, to regulate and settle these

things. In order to make them understood, and thereby to order the State and to

order the people, We shall issue, one after another, a succession of edicts, one

earlier, another later, one to-day and another to-morrow. But the people, who have

always trusted in the civilizing influence exercised by the Emperors, and who are

used to old customs, will certainly find it hard to wait until these edicts are made.

We shall therefore remit to all, from Princes and Ministers down to the common

people of all classes, the tax in lieu of service."

Meiji Constitution - Constitution of the Empire of Japan

Category: Japanese History Meiji Constitution

[Constitution of the Empire of Japan]

大日本帝國憲法 I feel as if I've been writing alot lately (for various reasons)

regarding the transition from the Tokugawa/Edo Era (1615-

1867) to the Meiji Era/Restoration (1868-1912) and the

rather dramatic political and societal changes caused by this shift.





As you may recall, the primary nature of this transition consisted in the seat of

power being irrevocably removed from the powerful daimyo/shogunate to the

Emperor himself. One of the most important and fundamental elements in the

stabillity of this shift of power involves Japan's desire to draft for itself its firstconstitution (kenpou /憲法).

I've here supplied the text of the Meiji Constitution outlining the new national power

of the Emperor and the expected roles of both citizens and politicians. Look closely

at the articles of chapter one in order to understand the sheer power and divine

status granted the Emperor.

By the way, this Meiji Constitution remained the central pillar of Japanese social

polity until the nation's defeat in WWII and the subsequent rewriting of the nation's

constitution under direct (editorial) supervision of the West (particularly via General

MacArthur) in 1945. Thus what you've heard about Japan's prior "Emperor Cult"

derives directly from this Meiji Constitution.

Perhaps the most radical shift within Japanese history toward modernization

occured at the start of the Meiji Restoration in 1868 AD. It is at this point that

Japan irrevocably turned away from its long-held political habit of granting de facto

power to the strongest shogun or daimyo of the time. Prior to the Meiji Restoration,

the Tokugawa Shogunate held such power, as is testified by the fact that the entire

preceding era (1615-1867) bears Tokugawa's name.

With the overthrow of the Tokugawa stronghold, an unprecedented effort was

made to develop a national government under the leadership of the Emperor Meiji

(明治天皇) (also known by the name Mutsuhito [睦仁]). The Emperor and many

leading reformers had come to increasingly admire Western technologies and



governanace, and so immediately following the Restoration, Japan's top political

ministers were sent abroad to study Western political infrastructure and economic

policy. One highly influential idea they returned with was that of a written

constitution outlining national governance and policy. In 1881, the current PrimeMinister, Ito Hirobumi (伊藤博文 / 1841 - 1909) was assigned the task of drafting

Japan's first constitution, which he promised would be completed within a decade.

By 1889 it was completed and the same year the Emperor himself enacted it. By

November 29, 1890 the Meiji Constitution had been implemented nationally.

The following is the original text of the Meiji Constitution as penned by Ito in 1889.

It is divided into seven chapters comprised of a total of 76 articles. In particular,chapters 1 - 3 are the most informative for Westerners as they outline the

relationship amongst Emperor, citizen and government.

CHAPTER 1. THE EMPEROR

Article 1.

The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperorsunbroken for ages eternal.

Article 2.

The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants,

according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

Article 3.

The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.

Article 4.



The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of

sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present

Constitution.

Article 5.

The Emperor' exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 6.

The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and

executed.

Article 7.

The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and

dissolves the House of Representatives.

Article 8.

The Emperor, in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or

to avert public calamities, issues, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, Imperial

Ordinances in the place of law. (2) Such Imperial Ordinances are to be laid before

the Imperial Diet at its next session, and when the Diet does not approve the said

Ordinances, the Government shall declare them to be invalid for the future.

Article 9.

The Emperor issues or causes to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the

carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of the public peace and order, and

for the promotion of the welfare of the subjects. But no Ordinance shall in any way

alter any of the existing laws.



Article 10.

The Emperor determines the organization of the different branches of the

administration, and salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and

dismisses the same. Exceptions especially provided for in the present Constitution

or in other laws, shall be in accordance with the respective provisions (bearing

thereon).

Article 11.

The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.

Article 12.

The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and

Navy.

Article 13.

The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.

Article 14.

The Emperor declares a state of siege. The conditions and effects of a state of

siege shall be determined by law.

Article 15.

The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor.

Article 16.

The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and

rehabilitation.



Article 17.

A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial

House Law. (2) The Regent shall exercise the powers appertaining to the Emperor

in His name.

CHAPTER II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SUBJECTS

Article 18.

The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by

law.

Article 19.

Japanese subjects may, according to qualifications determined in laws or

ordinances, be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally.

Article 20.

Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the Army or Navy, according to the

provisions of law.

Article 21.

Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the

provisions of law.

Article 22.

Japanese subjects shall have the liberty of abode and of changing the same within

the limits of the law.

Article 23.



No Japanese subject shall be arrested, detained, tried or punished, unless

according to law.

Article 24.

No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by the judges

determined by law.

Article 25.

Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall

be entered or searched without his consent.

Article 26.

Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every

Japanese subject shall remain inviolate.

Article 27.

The right of property of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate. (2)

Measures necessary to be taken for the public benefit shall beprovided for by law.

Article 28.

Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not

antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.

Article 29.

Japanese subjects shall, within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of speech,

writing, publication, public meetings and associations.

Article 30.



Japanese subjects may present petitions, by observing the proper forms of

respect, and by complying with the rules especially provided for the same.

Article 31.

The provisions contained in the present Chapter shall not affect the exercises of

the powers appertaining to the Emperor, in times of war or in cases of a national

emergency.

Article 32.

Each and every one of the provisions contained in the preceding Articles of the

present Chapter, that are not in conflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of

the Army and Navy, shall apply to the officers and men of the Army and of the

Navy.

CHAPTER III. THE IMPERIAL DIET

Article 33.

The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of

Representatives.

Article 34.

The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the Ordinance concerning the House

of Peers, be composed of the members of the Imperial family, of the orders of

nobility, and of those who have been nominated thereto by the Emperor.

Article 35.

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members elected by the

people, according to the provisions of the Law of Election.



Article 36.

No one can at one and the same time be a Member of both Houses.

Article 37.

Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 38.

Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government,

and may respectively initiate projects of law.

Article 39.

A Bill, which has been rejected by either the one or the other of the two Houses,

shall not be brought in again during the same session.

Article 40.

Both Houses can make representations to the Government, as to laws or upon any

other subject. When, however, such representations are not accepted, they cannot

be made a second time during the same session.

Article 41.

The Imperial Diet shall be convoked every year.

Article 42.

A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity,

the duration of a session may be prolonged by the Imperial Order.

Article 43.



When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked in

addition to the ordinary one. (2) The duration of an extraordinary session shall be

determined by Imperial Order.

Article 44.

The opening, closing, prolongation of session and prorogation of the Imperial Diet,

shall be effected simultaneously for both Houses. (2) In case the House of

Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, the House of Peers shall at the

same time be prorogued.

Article 45.

When the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, Members shall

be caused by Imperial Order to be newly elected, and the new House shall be

convoked within five months from the day of dissolution.

Article 46.

No debate can be opened and no vote can be taken in either House of the Imperial

Diet, unless not less than one-third of the whole number of Members thereof is

present.

Article 47.

Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote,

the President shall have the casting vote.

Article 48.

The deliberations of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may,

however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held

in secret sitting.



Article 49.

Both Houses of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the

Emperor.

Article 50.

Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects.

Article 51.

Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution

and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal

affairs.

Article 52.

No Member of either House shall be held responsible outside the respective

Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote given in the House. When,

however, a Member himself has given publicity to his opinions by public speech,by documents in print or in writing, or by any other similar means, he shall, in the

matter, be amenable to the general law.

Article 53.

The Members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, unless

with the consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offenses

connected with a state of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble.

Article 54.

The Ministers of State and the Delegates of the Government may, at any time,

take seats and speak in either House.



CHAPTER IV. THE MINISTERS OF STATE AND THE PRIVY COUNCIL

Article 55.

The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be

responsible for it. (2) All Laws, Imperial Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of

whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the State, require the countersignature of

a Minister of State.

Article 56.

The Privy Councillors shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organization

of the Privy Council, deliberate upon important matters of State, when they have

been consulted by the Emperor.

CHAPTER V. THE JUDICATURE

Article 57.

The Judicature shall be exercised by the Courts of Law according to law, in thename of the Emperor. (2) The organization of the Courts of Law shall be

determined by law.

Article 58.

The judges shall be appointed from among those, who possess proper

qualifications according to law. (2) No judge shall be deprived of his position,

unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment. (3) Rules for

disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law.

Article 59.



Trials and judgments of a Court shall be conducted publicly. When, however, there

exists any fear, that such publicity may be prejudicial to peace and order, or to the

maintenance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended by provisions of

law or by the decision of the Court of Law.

Article 60.

All matters, that fall within the competency of a special Court, shall be specially

provided for by law.

Article 61.

No suit at law, which relates to rights alleged to have been infringed by the illegal

measures of the administrative authorities, and which shall come within the

competency of the Court of Administrative Litigation specially established by law,

shall be taken cognizance of by a Court of Law.

CHAPTER VI. FINANCE

Article 62.

The imposition of a new tax or the modification of the rates (of an existing one)

shall be determined by law. (2) However, all such administrative fees or other

revenue having the nature of compensation shall not fall within the category of the

above clause. (3) The raising of national loans and the contracting of other

liabilities to the charge of the National Treasury, except those that are provided in

the Budget, shall require the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 63.

The taxes levied at present shall, in so far as they are not remodelled by a new

law, be collected according to the old system.



Article 64.

The expenditure and revenue of the State require the consent of the Imperial Diet

by means of an annual Budget. (2) Any and all expenditures overpassing the

appropriations set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the Budget, or that are not

provided for in the Budget, shall subsequently require the approbation of the

Imperial Diet.

Article 65.

The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives.

Article 66.

The expenditures of the Imperial House shall be defrayed every year out of the

National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall

not require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase

thereof is found necessary.

Article 67.

Those already fixed expenditures based by the Constitution upon the powers

appertaining to the Emperor, and such expenditures as may have arisen by the

effect of law, or that appertain to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be

neither rejected nor reduced by the Imperial Diet, without the concurrence of the

Government.

Article 68.

In order to meet special requirements, the Government may ask the consent of the

Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a

previously fixed number of years.



Article 69.

In order to supply deficiencies, which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to meet

requirements unprovided for in the same, a Reserve Fund shall be provided in the

Budget.

Article 70.

When the Imperial Diet cannot be convoked, owing to the external or internal

condition of the country, in case of urgent need for the maintenance of public

safety, the Government may take all necessary financial measures, by means of

an Imperial Ordinance. (2) In the case mentioned in the preceding clause, the

matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at its next session, and its

approbation shall be obtained thereto.

Article 71.

When the Imperial Diet has not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not

been brought into actual existence, the Government shall carry out the Budget of

the preceding year.

Article 72.

The final account of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be verified

and confirmed by the Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government

to the Imperial Diet, together with the report of verification of the said Board. (2)

The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall be determined by law

separately.

CHAPTER VII. SUPPLEMENTARY RULES

Article 73.



When it has become necessary in future to amend the provisions of the present

Constitution, a project to the effect shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet by

Imperial Order. (2) In the above case, neither House can open the debate, unless

not less than two-thirds of the whole number of Members are present, and noamendment can be passed, unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the

Members present is obtained.

Article 74.

No modification of the Imperial House Law shall be required to be submitted to the

deliberation of the Imperial Diet. (2) No provision of the present Constitution can

be modified by the Imperial House Law.

Article 75.

No modification can be introduced into the Constitution, or into the Imperial House

Law, during the time of a Regency.

Article 76.

Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations, Ordinances, or by whatever

names they may be called, shall, so far as they do not conflict with the present

Constitution, continue in force. (2) All existing contracts or orders, that entail

obligations upon the Government, and that are connected with expenditure, shall

come within the scope of Article 67.

Istoria Japoniei in Perioade Si Date

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