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Drug crimes . The drug-crime category encompasses a range of offensesconnected with the use, transportation, purchase, and sale of illegal drugs.

Street crime . The most common forms of predatory crime rape, robbery,assault, burglary, larceny, and auto theft occur most frequently on urbanstreets. Racial minority citizens account for a disproportionately high number of the arrests for street crimes.

Organized crime . The term organized crime refers to the unlawful activities of members of criminal organizations that supply illegal goods and services.

Political crime . The political-crime category contains both crimes by thegovernment and crimes against the government. Political goals motivatepolitical criminals.

Victimless crime . Consensual acts (in which people are willing participants) andviolations in which only the perpetrator is hurt, such as the personal use of illegal drugs, are called victimless crimes.

White-collar crime . White-collar crimes are offenses that persons commit whileacting in their legitimate jobs and professions. White-collar criminals behave inunethical ways for self-gain (for example, embezzlement) or for the benefit of abusiness (for example, corporate price-fixing). Victims of white-collar crimeinclude the economy, employers, consumers, and the environment.

Categorisation by type

The following classes of offences are used, or have been used, as legal terms of art:

Offence against the person [21] Violent offence [22] Sexual offence [23] Offence against property [24]

Researchers and commentators have classified crimes into the following categories, in addition

to those above: Forgery, personation and cheatin g[25] Firearms and offensive weapon s[26] Offences against the State/Offences against the Crown and Governmen t[27] / Political

offence s[28] Harmful or dangerous drug s[29] Offences against religion and public worship [30] Offences against public justic e[31] / Offences against the administration of public justic e[32] Public order offence [33] Commerce , financial markets and insolvency [34]

Offences against public morals and public policy[35]

Motor vehicle offence s[36] Conspiracy, incitement and attempt to commit crim e[37]

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Categorisation by penalty

One can categorise crimes depending on the related punishment, with sentencing tariffs prescribed in line with the perceived seriousness of the offence. Thus fines and noncustodialsentences may address the crimes seen as least serious, with lengthy imprisonment or (in some

jurisdictions) capital punishment reserved for the most serious.

Common law

Under the common law of England , crimes were classified as either treason , felony ormisdemeanour , with treason sometimes being included with the felonies. This system was basedon the perceived seriousness of the offence. It is still used in the United States but the distinctionbetween felony and misdemeanour is abolished in England and Wales and Northern Ireland .

Classification by mode of trial

The following classes of offence are based on mode of trial :

Indictable-only offence Indictable offence Hybrid offence , aka either-way offence in England and Wales Summary offence , aka infraction in the US

Classification by origin

In common law countries, crimes may be categorised into those which are common law offences and those which are statutory . In the US, Australia and Canada (in particular), they are divided

into federal crimes and those under state law.

U.S. classification

In the United States since 1930, the FBI has tabulated Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) annuallyfrom crime data submitted by law enforcement agencies across the United States .[38] Officialscompile this data at the city, county, and state levels into the Uniform crime reports (UCR). Theyclassify violations of laws which derive from common law as Part I (index) crimes in UCR data,further categorised as violent or property crimes. Part I violent crimes include murder andcriminal homicide (voluntary manslaughter), forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery;while Part I property crimes include burglary, arson, larceny/theft, and motor-vehicle theft. Allother crimes count come under Part II.

For convenience, such lists usually include infractions although, in the U.S., they may come intothe sphere not of the criminal law, but rather of the civil law . Compare tortfeasance .

Booking -arrests require detention for a time-frame ranging 1 to 24 hours.

.Crimes in international law

Crimes defined by treaty as crimes against international law include:

crimes against peace crimes of apartheid

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genocide piracy slavery sexual slavery forced disappearance waging a war of aggression

war crimes

From the point of view of State-centric law, extraordinary procedures (usually internationalcourts ) may prosecute such crimes. Note the role of the International Criminal Court at TheHague in the Netherlands .

Popular opinion in the Western World and Former Soviet Union often [when? ] associatesinternational law with the concept of opposing terrorism [citation needed ] seen as a crime as distinctfrom warfare.

Religion and crime Religious sentiment often becomes a contributory factor of crime. 1819 anti-Jewish riots inFrankfurt where rioters attacked Jewish businesses and destroyed property

Different religious traditions may promote distinct norms of behaviour, and these in turn mayclash or harmonise with the perceived interests of a state. Socially accepted or imposed religiousmorality has influenced secular jurisdictions on issues that may otherwise concern only anindividual's conscience. Activities sometimes criminalized on religious grounds include (forexample) alcohol -consumption (prohibition ), abortion and stem-cell research. In varioushistorical and present-day societies institutionalized religions have established systems of earthly

justice which punish crimes against the divine will and against specific devotional,organizational and other rules under specific codes, such as Roman Catholic canon law .

Military jurisdictions and states of emergency

In the military sphere, authorities can prosecute both regular crimes and specific acts (such asmutiny or desertion ) under martial-law codes that either supplant or extend civil codes in timesof (for example) war.

Many constitutions contain provisions to curtail freedoms and criminalize otherwise tolerated

behaviors under a state of emergency in the event of war, natural disaster or civil unrest.Undesired activities at such times may include assembly in the streets, violation of curfew , orpossession of firearms .

Employee crime

Main article: Occupational crime

Two common types of employee crime exist: embezzlement and sabotage .[citation needed ]

The complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflagetheir operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses,insurance companies, and other large financial institutions .[39]

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Most people guilty of embezzlement do not have criminal histories .[citation needed ] Embezzlers tendto have a gripe against their employer , have financial problems, or simply an inability to resistthe temptation of a loophole they have found. [citation needed ] Screening and background checks onperspective employees can help in prevention; however, many laws make some types of screening difficult or even illegal. Fired or disgruntled employees sometimes sabotage theircompany's computer system as a form of "pay back ".[39] This sabotage may take the form of a

logic bomb , a computer virus , or creating general havoc.

Some places of employment have developed measures in an attempt to combat and preventemployee crime. Places of employment sometimes implement security measures such ascameras, fingerprint records of employees, and background checks. [citation needed ] Althoughprivacy-advocates have questioned such methods, they appear to serve the interests of theorganisations using them. Not only do these methods help prevent employee crime, but theyprotect the company from punishment and/or lawsuits for negligent hiring

The causes of crime is one of the major research areas in criminology .

The Handbook of Crime Correlates (2009) is a systematic review of worldwide studies on crimepublicized in the academic literature. The results of a total of 5200 studies are summarized. Inorder to identify well-established crime correlates consistency scores were calculated for thefactors which many studies have examined. The authors argue that the review summaries most of what is currently known of variables associated with criminality .[1]

Biological

[edit ] Age

Crime is most frequent in second and third decades of life .[1]

[edit ] Gender

Males commit more overall and violent crime. They also commit more property crime exceptshoplifting , which is about equally distributed between the genders. Males appear to be morelikely to recidivate .[1]

[edit ] Arousal

Measures related to arousal such as heart rate and skin conductance are low among criminals .[1]

[edit ] Body type

Mesomorphic or muscular body type is positively correlated with criminality .[1]

[edit ] Hormones

Testosterone is positively correlated to criminality .[1]

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nehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosteronehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosteronehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causes_and_correlates_of_crime&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesomorphichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causes_and_correlates_of_crime&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_conductancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causes_and_correlates_of_crime&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recidivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopliftinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causes_and_correlates_of_crime&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Causes_and_correlates_of_crime&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_virushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_bombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime#cite_note-Computing1-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_checkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_history

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Race, ethnicity, and immigration

There is a relationship between race and crime . Many different theories have been proposed forthe relationship between race and crime in the United States .

Ethnically/racially diverse areas probably have higher crime rates compared to ethnically/raciallyhomogeneous areas .[1]

Most studies on immigrants have found higher rates of crime. However, this varies greatlydepending on the country of origin with immigrants from some regions having lower crime ratesthan the indigenous population .[1]

Early life

Pregnancy

Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with later criminality. Low birth weight andperinatal trauma/birth complications may be more prevalent among criminals .[1]

Children who's birth results from an unintended pregnancy are more likely to be delinquents orcommit crimes .[2]

Family

Child maltreatment, low parent-child attachment, marital discord/family discord, alcoholism anddrug use in the family, and low parental supervision/monitoring are associated with criminality.

Larger family size and later birth order are also associated .[1]

School

School disciplinary problems, truancy , low grade point average , and dropping out of high schoolare associated with criminality .[1]

Adult behavior

Alcohol and illegal drug use

High alcohol use, alcohol abuse, and alcoholism, as well as high illegal drug use and dependenceare positively related to criminality in general .[1]

Sex

Early age of first intercourse and more sexual partners are associated with criminality .[1]

Friends

Few friends, criminal friends, and gang membership correlate positively with criminality .[1]

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Religion

High religious involvement, high importance of religion in one's life, membership in anorganized religion, and orthodox religious beliefs are associated with less criminality. Areas withhigher religious membership have lower crime rates .[1]

Physical health

General morbidity

Criminals probably suffer from more illnesses .[1]

Epilepsy

Epilepsy appears to have a positive correlation with criminality .[1]

Accidental injuries

Criminals are more frequently accidentally injured .[1]

Psychological traits

Conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder

Childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder are associated with oneanother and criminal behavior .[3][1]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder correlates positively with criminality .[1]

Depression and suicide

Minor depression and probably clinical depression is more likely among offenders. Depressionin the family is associated with criminality. Criminals are more likely to be suicidal .[1]

SchizophreniaSchizophrenia and criminality appear to be positively correlated .[1][4]

Personality traits

Several personality traits are associated with criminality: High impulsivity , high psychoticism , high sensation-seeking , low self control , high aggression in childhood, and low empathy andaltruism .[1]

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me#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_and_correlates_of_crime#cite_note-EllisBeaver2009-0

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Socioeconomic factors

Higher total socioeconomic status (usually measured using the three variables income (or wealth),occupational level, and years of education) correlate with less crime. Longer eduction is associated withless crime. Higher income/wealth have a somewhat inconsistent correlation with less crime with theexception of self-report illegal drug use for which there is no relation. Higher parental socioeconomic

status probably have an inverse relationship with crime .[1]

High frequency of changing jobs and high frequency of unemployment for a person correlate withcriminality .[1]

Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates that there is a relationship between low income, percentageunder the poverty line, few years of education, and high income inequality in an area and more crime inthe area .[1]

The relationship between the state of the economy and crime rates is inconsistent among the studies. Thesame for differences in unemployment between different regions and crime rates. There is a slight

tendency in the majority of the studies for higher unemployment rate to be positively associated withcrime rates .[1]

Other geographic factors

Cities or counties with larger populations have higher crime rates. Poorly maintained neighborhoodscorrelate with higher crime rates. High residential mobility is associated with a higher crime rate. Moretaverns and alcohol stores, as well as more gambling and tourist establishments, in an area are positivelyrelated to criminality .[1]

There appears to be higher crime rates in the geographic regions of a country that are closer to the

equator .[1]

Weather, season and climate

Crime rates vary with temperature depending on both short-term weather and season . The relationshipbetween the hotter months of summer and a peak in rape and assault seems to be almost universal. Forother crimes there are also seasonal or monthly patterns but they are more inconsistent across nations.One explanation for this is that heat affects the body which may cause effects such as discomfort; anotheris that temperature changes to way people socially interact. On the other hand for climate , there is ahigher crime rate in the southern US but this largely disappears after non-climatic factors are controlledfor .[5]

Victims and fear or crime

Risk of being a crime victim is highest for teens through mid 30s and lowest for the elderly. Fear of crime shows the opposite pattern. Criminals are more often crime victims. Females fear crimes more thanmales. Blacks appear to fear crime more. Blacks are more often victims, especially of murder .[1]

Being an unwanted child

Children who's parents did not want to have a child are more likely to grow to be delinquents orcommit crimes .[2] Such children are also less likely to succeed in school, and are more likely tolive in poverty .[2] They also tend to have lower mother-child relationship quality .[6] Childrenwho's births were unintended are likely to be less mentally and physically healthy duringchildhood .[7]

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