=CUPRINS PREFA... N. NOIrNI EiEMENTARE DE OPTIC= I MECANIC CrANTIC ...=NKNK= pcurt=istoric=KK=NKOK= aomenii=de=frecen i=lungimi=de=und==NKPK= mroprietile=fundamentale=ale=luminii=K=NKPKNK= oeflexia==NKPKOK= oefracia=KKK=NKPKPK= oeflexia=total=KK=NKPKQK= aifuzia=KK=NKPKRK= aifracia==NKPKSK= aispersia=KKK=NKPKTK= molarizarea=luminii=KKK=NKPKUK= fnterferena=luminii=KKK=NKQK= ientile=KK=NKRK= purse=de=radiaie=KKK=NKSK= jrimi=i=uniti=KKK=NKSKNK= fntensitatea=unei=surse=punctiforme=KK=NKSKOK= fntensitatea=luminoas=a=unei=surse=superficiale=KK=NKTK= bxperimente=care=eideniaz=natura=corpuscular=a=luminii=KKK=NKTKNK= bfectul=fotoelectric=extern==NKTKOK= bfectul=Compton=KK==O. DIODE EiECTROirMINISCENTE EiEDuriF=OKNK= blectroluminiscena=jonciunii=pJn=KKK=OKNKNK= jodelul=n=benzi=energetice=a=jonciunii=pJn=KK=OKNKOK= jateriale=fotoemisie=cu=emisie=direct i=indirect==OKNKPK= Calculul=lungimii=de=und=radiate=de=un=material=fotoemisi=KK==OKOK= blemente=constructie=caracteristice=ale=ibaurilor=K=OKPK= Caracteristici=electroJoptice=ale=ibaului=K=OKPKNK= pimboluri=grafice=KK=OKPKOK= Caracteristica=curentJtensiune=KK=OKPKPK= Caracteristica=spectral=a=radiaiei=emise=K=OKPKQK= Caracteristica=de=directiitate=KKK=OKPKRK= aependena=strlucirii=B=a=ibaului=n=funcie=de=curentul=fc=KK=OKPKSK= Comportarea=ibaurilor=cu=temperatura=KK=OKPKTK= Comportarea=ibaurilor=n=timp=KKK=OKQK= Aplicaii=tipice=pentru=ibauri=K=

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=P. CIRCrITE DE COMAND PENTRr iEDuri =PKNK= Circuite=simple=de=semnalizareI=cu=ibauri=K=PKOK= Circuite=de=comand=n=curent=continuu=KKK=PKOKNK= Circuite=de=comand=pentru=iruri=de=ibauri=KK=PKOKOK= ariere=specializate=pentru=comanda=irurilor=de=ibauri=KKK=PKOKPK= Comanda=pentru=strlucire=constant=KKK=PKPK= Circuite=de=comand=n=curent=alternati=K=PKQK= Circuite=de=comand=n=impulsuri==PKQKNK= Circuite=de=comand=cu=pori=logice=K=PKQKOK= Comanda=ibaurilor=pentru=raz=mare=de=aciune==PKQKPK= jatrice=de=ibauri=KKK==4. OPTOCrPiORri ...=QKNK= CaracteristiciK=rtilitate=K=QKOK= qipuri=de=optocuploare=K=QKOKNK= lptocuploare=analogice==QKOKOK= lptocuploare=digitale=KKK=QKOKPK= Alte=tipuri=de=optocuploare=KKK=QKPK= marametri=specifici=optocuploarelorK== Msurarea=lor=la=fabricant==QKPKNK= qensiunea=i=rezistena=de=izolaie==QKPKOK= Capacitatea=de=izolaie=KK=QKPKPK= cactorul=de=rejecie=al=modului=comun=K=QKPKQK= cactorul=de=transfer=n=curent=KKK=QKPKRK= Curentul=de=ntuneric==QKPKSK= Caracteristica=de=intrare==QKPKTK= qensiunea=de=saturaie=a=fototranzistorului=KK=QKPKUK= siteza=KKK=QKPKVK= _anda=de=trecere=KKK=QKQK= mrocedee=de=cretere=a=itezei=de=comutaie=K=QKQKNK= pcderea=timpului=de=comutaie=iners=EtlccF=K=QKQKOK= Controlul=constantei=de=timp=asociate=fototranzistorului=K=QKQKPK= mrocedee=de=reducere=a=timpilor=de=comutaie== la=comanda=n=impulsuri=KKK=QKRK= mbtrnirea=optocuploarelor=KKK=QKSK= korme=specifice=priind=utilizarea=optocuploarelor=K==R. AMPiIFICATOARE IZOiATOARE =RKNK= Amplificatoare=cu=ctig=reglabil=K=RKOK= Compensarea=neliniaritii=caracteristicii=de=transfer=KKK=RKOKNK= Amplificator=izolator=cu=reacie=negati=la=receptor=EoxF=KKK==

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=RKOKOK= Compensarea=neliniaritii=caracteristicii=de=transfer== prin=ok=cu=dispoziti=pereche==RKPK= qransmisia=semnalelor=analogice=prin=modulare=L=demodulare=RKQK= Alte=exemple=de=amplificatoare=izolatoare=KKK==S. TRANSMISII DE SEMNAiE BINARE PRIN OPTOCrPiOARE .=SKNK= qransmisii=binare=locale=KKK=SKNKNK= mrobleme=specifice=ale=transmisiilor=digitale== prin=optocuploare=K=SKNKOK= bxemple=de=transmisii=digitale=locale== cu=separare=prin=optocuploare=KK=SKOK= qransmisii=binareI=pe=fire=metaliceI=la=distan==SKOKNK= mrobleme=specifice=ale=transmisiilor=pe=fire=metalice== cu=separare=optic=K=SKOKOK= qransmisia=prin=bucl=de=tensiune==SKOKPK= qransmisia=prin=bucl=de=curent=KKK==T. OPTOCrPiOARE N APiICAII INDrSTRIAiE .=TKNK= Circuite=de=detecie=a=prezenei=EexisteneiF=tensiunii=de=reea= =TKOK= Circuite=de=detecie=a=prezenei=curentului=KKK=TKPK= aetectoare=de=prag==TKQK= Circuite=de=protecie=pentru=optocuploare==TKQKNK= pupratensiuni=tipice=n=reea=K=TKQKOK= qehnici=de=atenuare=a=supratensiunilor=K==U.= FOTODIODA .=UKNK= mrincipiul=de=funcionare=KK=UKOK= jrimi=caracteristice==UKPK= jodelul=electric=al=fotodiodei=KK=UKQK= Configuraii=de=baz=ale=amplificatoarelor=cu=fotodiode=KK=UKRK= Aplicaii=cu=fotodiode=mfk=KKK==9. iASERE .=VKNK= mrincipiul=de=funcionare=al=laserelor=KKK=VKOK= Componentele=principale=ale=unui=laser=KKK=VKPK= iasere=cu=corp=solid=K=VKQK= aioda=laser=semiconductoare=KKK=VKQKNK= jateriale=semiconductoare=adecate=fabricrii=diodelor=laser==VKQKOK= mroducerea=radiaiei=laser=K=

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=VKQKPK= ptructuri=constructie=ale=diodelor=laser=KKK=VKQKQK= Caracteristicile=radiaiei=emise=de=diodele=laser=KKK=VKQKRK= Circuit=de=comand=pentru=diode=laser=de=putere=K==NM. COMrNICAII PE FIBR OPTIC =NMKNK= fstoricul=fibrelor=optice=K=NMKOK= Aantajele=transmisiilor=pe=fibr=optic=KKK=NMKPK= mropagarea=luminii=prin=fibra=optic==NMKQK= Configuraii=tipice=de=fibre=optice==NMKRK= rnghiul=de=acceptan==i=conul=de=acceptan=K=NMKSK= mierderi=n=cablurile=cu=fibre=optice=KK=NMKTK= pisteme=de=comunicaie=pe=fibr=optic==== GiOSAR == BIBiIOGRAFIE ...

==NTN===NTP===NTQ=

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== V

1. NOIUNI ELEMENTARE DE OPTIC I MECANIC CUANTIC

=1.1. Scurt istoric=== n= secK= s= KCK= echii= greci= introduc= teoria= tactil= a= ederii= i= teoria=emisiei=Eochii=emit=luminFI=teorii=care=n=timp=sJau=doedit=falseK== oobert= eooe= realizeaz= n= NSSR= primii= pai= n= teoria= ondulatorie= a=luminiiK== aescoperirea= difraciei= luminii= i= introducerea= teoriei= corpusculare= a=luminii=au=fost=realizate=de=ctre=fsaac=kewton=n=anul=NSTOK== n= anul= NSTS= llaus= omer= ajunge= la= concluzia= c= iteza= luminii= este=finit i=msurabil=Ec==OOQKMMM=mLsFK== euygens= definete= n= secolul= al= usffJlea= teoria= ondulatorie= a= luminii=explicnd=fenomenul=de=propagareW=orice=punct=de=pe=o=suprafa=de=und=este=centrul= unei= noi= unde= elementareI= astfel= nct= nfurtoarea= tuturor= undelor=elementare==a=fi=o=suprafa=de=und=ntrJun=moment=ulteriorK=ae=asemeneaI=el=descoper=faptul=c=lumina=are=polaritateK== pecolul=ufu=mbogete=domeniul=cu=numeroase=experiene=cu=reflexii=i=refracii=ale=luminiiK== qot= n= aceea= perioadI= jaxwell= introduce= teoria= electromagnetic= a=luminiiK=bl=determin=constantele=matematice=pentru=electricitate=i=magnetism=care=iJau=ngduit=s=stabileasc=domeniul=de=frecene=i=spectrul=de=lungimi=de=und=a=luminiiK== eeinrich= eertz= descoper= n= anul= NUUU= efectul= fotoelectric= n= metale=expuse=la=radiaie=ultraioletK== n=anul=NUVS=Antoine=eenri=_equerel=descoper=radioactiitateaK== jax=mlan=descoper=n=anul=NVMM=c=lumina=e=emis=de=atomi=n=cuanteK=l= cuant= de= energie= depinde= de= lungimea= de= undK= n= anii= NVMRJNVMS= el=determin=constanta=ce=i=poart=numeleK== aup=publicarea= n= NVMR=a= teoria= relatiitii= restrnseI= Albert= binstein=introduce=n=anul=NVMT=noiunea=de=foton= J=particula=constituti=a= luminiiK= n=anul=NVNR=public=teoria=modern=a=graitaiei=i=teoria=relatiitii=generalizateK=== n= NVOS= Albert= jichelson= determin= experimental= iteza= luminii= Ec= =OVVKTVS==Q=mLsFK== n= anul= NVOTI= odat= cu= apariia= teoriei= moderne= a= luminiiI= ia= natere=mecanica=cuanticK===

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==NM

1.2. Domenii de frecven i lungimi de und=== n=radiofrecen=diferitele=oscilaii=se=deosebesc=n=mod=tradiional=prin=frecenele=lorK= n=radiodifuziuneI=chiar=dac=TRmI=QVmI=QNmI=PNmI=ORmI=ONmI=NSmI= NPmI= NNm= desemneaz= undeI= acestea= sunt= de= fapt= gameI= iar= emisiunile=sunt=descrise= n= mod=obinuit= prin= freceneW= NNRO=ez= _ucuretiLmediiI= NRM=hez= _ucuretiLlungiI= VMV= hez= oadio= Cluj= etcK= _anda= de= radiodifuziune= se=ntinde=n= domeniul=de=frecene=NRM=hez==PM =jezK =rrmeaz=PM =jez==N=dez= alte= unde= radioI= cum= ar= fi= transmisiile= qsK= n= microundeI= descrierea=oscilaiilor= prin= frecena= lor= este= de= asemenea= tradiionalK= ia= radiorelee= se=specific== fqu= Z =TNRM =jezI = =fou= Z =TORM =jezI =spre =exempluK =ia =transmisiile =prin=satelit=la=felI=NMIP==NNIS=dezI=n=banda=pec=europeanK=== n=optic=nsI=diferitele=oscilaii=sunt=definite=prin=lungimile=lor=de=undK=Conersia=de=la=frecen=la=lungimea=de=und=este=imediatW==

fcTc N==l = = = = = = ENKNF=

== rndele= radioI=microundeleI=undele= luminoase== incluznd=aici= ntregul=spectru=ce=face=obiectul=optoelectroniciiW=infrarou=EfoFI=izibilI=ultraiolet=ErsF==radiaiile=u=i= radiaiile=gamma=sunt= toate=unde=electromagneticeK=aiferene=calitatie=nu=prezintK=sariaiile=cantitatie=legate=de=frecena=lorI==lungimea=de=undI=i=energia=asociat=lorI=sunt=n=raport=de=NWNMNT i=respecti=de=NWNMNV== la=energia= cuantic= Eenergia= unui= singur= fotonFK= ain= ariaia= acestor= parametri=rezult i=proprietile=fizice=care=difereniaz=aceste=radiaiiK== iimitele=spectrale=Ede=frecen=sau=n=spectrul=lungimilor=de=undF=sunt=date=n= tabelul=urmtorK=jarginile=diferitelor=domenii=se=suprapunI=frecenele=i=lungimile=de=und=din=tabelul=urmtor=fiind=aproximatieK===

qipul=radiaiei= aomeniul=de=frecene= aomeniul=de=lungimi=de=und=

bnergia=cuantic=b=Z=h=K=n=

rnde=radio= P=hez===N=dez= NMM=m= =MIP=m= MINO=pes==Q=mes=jicrounde= N=dez=N=qez= MIP=m==MIP=mm= Q=mes==Q=mes=fnfrarou= Nqez==QPM=qez= MIP=mm==MIT=mm= Q=mes==NIU=es=sizibil= QPM=qez= =TRM=qez= MIT=mm==MIQ=mm= NIU=es==PIN=es=rltraiolet= TRM=qez= =NMQ=qez= MIQ=mm==PM=nm= PIN=es==QM=es=oadiaii=u= NMQ=qez==PKNMS=qez= PM=nm==MIN=nm= QM=es= NO=hes=oadiaii=gamma= PKNMS=qez=PKNMU=qez= MIN=nm= =N=pm= NO=hes= NIO=jes=

=

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== NN

= rnitatea= de= msur= pentru= lungimea= de= und= este= metrulI= multipli= i=submultipli=luiK=mentru=domeniul=optic=se=folosesc=micrometrul=EN=mm=Z=NMJS=mF=i= nanometrul= EN= nm= Z= NMJV= mFK= n= afara= nanometrului= i= micronuluiI=Angstrmul= EN= Z =NMJNM= m= Z= NM= Q= mmF =a =fost =unitatea =de =lungime =de =und=consacrat=dar=se=folosete=din=ce=n=ce=mai=rarK== pe= obser= c= domeniul= izibil= reprezint= o=mic= parte=din= spectrul= ce=face= obiectul= optoelectroniciiK= n= timp= ce= domeniul= tuturor= radiaiilor= optice=Eizibile=i=inizibileF=se=ntinde=de=la=l= max=EfoF=Z=MIP=mm=la=l= min=ErsF=Z=PM=nmI=domeniul=izibil=se=ntinde=de=la=l= rou=Z=MIT=mm=la=l=iolet=Z=MIQ=mm=i=este=caracterizat=de=o=mic=ariaie=a=energie=cuantice=Ede=la=U=es=la=PIN=esFK=Alte=manuale= indic=pentru=domeniile=ce=fac=obiectul=optoelectronicii=alorile=din=tabelul=de=mai=jos=i==respecti==figura=NKNW====

qipul=radiaiei= aomeniul=de=lungimi=de=und= aomeniul=de=frecene=rltraiolet= R=nm= =MIPV=mm= TSV=qez= =SMKMMM=qez=sizibil= MIPV=mm==MITR=mm= QMM=qez= =TSV=qez=fnfrarou= MITR=mm==Qmm= TR=dez==QMM=qez=

==

=

==

cigK=NKNK=aelimitarea=domeniului=opticK===

= lchiul=uman=percepe=ioletul=Eaproximati=MIQP=mm=lungime=de=undF=la=un=capt=al=spectrului=izibil=i=roul=Eaproximati=MISU=mm=lungime=de=undF=la=cellalt= captK= ntre= aceste= limite= ochiul= sesizeaz= indigoulI= albastrulI= erdeleI=galbenulI=portocaliul=i=nuane=ale=lorK== mentru= ederea= fotopic= Eochiul= adaptat= la= luminF= maximul= de=sensibilitate= al= ochiului= uman= se= afl= n= jurul= alorii= de= RRMnmK= ia= ederea=scotopic=Eochiul=adaptat=la=ntunericF=acest=prag=se=deplaseaz=la=circa=RNMnm=Eefectul=murinjeFI= aa=cum=se=poate=edea= n= figura=NKOI= n=care=este= ilustrat=

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==NO

dependena=sensibilitii=relatieI=pI=a=ochiului=uman=n=funcie=de=lungimea=de=und=pentru=cele=dou=tipuri=de=edereK===

==

cigK=NKOK=bfectul=murinjeK===

= aou=fascicule=care=sunt=percepute=ca=and=aceeai=culoare=au=de=obicei=aceeai=lungime=de=undK=qotui=combinaia=a=dou=culori=ca=de=exemplu=erde=i= rou= pot= da= albastruK= ae= aceeaI= o= anumit= radiaie= nu= este= neaprat= cea=corespunznd= lungimii= de= und= pe= care= o= percepemK= dradarea= culorilor= i= a=lungimilor= de=und=depinde=de=obseratorI= iar= limitele=se=suprapunK= n= tabelul=urmtor=sunt=date=lungimile=de=und=tipice=pentru=diferitele=culori=percepute=de=ochiul=umanK===

fnfrarou= MITM=mm====Q=mm====sizibil=

oou= MISN=mm====MITM=mm=lranj= MIRV=mm====MISN=mm=dalben= MIRT=mm====MIRV=mm=serde= MIRM=mm====MIRT=mm=Albastru= MIQR=mm====MIRM=mm=siolet= MIQM=mm====MIQR=mm=

rltraiolet= ====R=nm====MIPV=mm=

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== NP

1.3. Proprietile fundamentale ale luminii =1.3.1. Reflexia = ciind= und= electromagneticI= lumina= se= reflect= ca= toate= undele=electromagneticeK=bxist=similitudini=chiar=i=cu=undele=elasticeI=care=sunt=unde=mecaniceW=schimbarea=fazei=prin=reflexieI=pierderea=a=lLO=cnd=unda=din=mediul=mai=puin=dens=ntlnete=unda=din=mediul=mai=densK== cie=dou=medii=diferite=separate=printrJo=suprafa=plan i=fie=p=o=surs=punctiform= de= radiaie= EluminFK= cie= f= raza= incident= de= lumin= care= face=unghiul=q=cu=normala= la= suprafaa=de=separaie= n=punctul=l=de=inciden= EfigK=NKPFK====

==

cigK=NKPK=oeflexiaK===

Legea reflexiei =NK= areptele= fI= o i= normala= se= afl= n= acelai= plan= Enumit= plan= de= incidenI=perpendicular=pe=suprafaa=de=separaieF=i=sunt=concurente=n=punctul=lI=OK=oaza=reflectat=EemergentFI=oI==face=acelai=unghi=q==cu=normalaI=ca=i=raza=incidentI=fK== Coeficientul= de= reflexieI= este= o= mrime= adimensionalI= exprimat= n=procenteI= care= indic= fraciunea= din= fluxul=EputereaF= = luminoas= incident=care=se= ntoarce= n= mediul= din= care= ineK= mentru= suprafee= netede= i= lucioaseI= sunt=posibili=coeficieni=de=reflexie=de=peste=VVBK== oeflexia=pe=o=suprafa=neregulat=este=nsoit=de=difuzie=Ereflexii=dup=mai= multe= direcii= nsoite= i= de= atenuarea= razelor= emergenteFK= rneori= acesta=poate=fi=chiar=efectul=dorit=EfigK=NKQFK==

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==NQ

=

==

cigK=NKQK==aifuzia=prin=reflexie==pe=o=suprafa=neregulatK===1.3.2. Refracia =

oefracia=apare=n=cazul=n=care=suprafaa=pe=care=cade=fascicolul=incident=permite=trecerea=unei=pri==a=energiei=luminoase=prin=suprafaa=de=separareK== siteza= luminii= Ea= undelor= electromagneticeF= n= id= a= fost= stabilit= de=jaxwellW=

MM

Nme

=c == = = = = ENKOF=

=unde=constantele=e0 i m0 sunt=permitiitatea=electricI=respecti=permeabilitatea=magnetic=a=iduluiK=== ntrJun=mediu=omogen=oarecareI=iteza=de=propagare=a= luminii=este=dat=de=formulaW==

c

= N = = = = = ENKPF=

=unde= constantele= e i m sunt= permitiitatea= electricI= respecti= permeabilitatea=magnetic= a= mediului= respectiK= Aceast= formul= se= erific= n= foarte= multe=cazuri=Eo=excepie=este=de=exemplu=cazul=apeiI=unde=fenomenul=este=bruiat=de=absorbieFK== pe= poate= conchide= c= iteza= luminii= depinde= de=mediul= n=care=are= loc=propagareaI=iar=coeficientulW==

cn = I= = = = = = ENKQF=

=se=numete=indice=de=refracie=al=mediului=respectiK== S= presupunem= c= aem= o= suprafa= de= separare= ntre= dou= medii=omogene=diferiteI=caracterizate=de=indicii=de=refracie=diferiiW=nN==nOK=EfigK=NKRFK=S=mai=presupunem=c=mediul=N=este=optic=mai=puin=dens=dect=mediul=O=EnN=Y=

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== NR

nOF=i=c=trimitem=un=fascicol=incident=f=spre=suprafaa=de=separaie=sub=un=unghi=oarecare=qf=I=dintrJo=surs=punctiform=pK=cie=l=punctul=de=incidenK=ia=trecerea=n= mediul= mai= densI= raza= transmis= T= se =apropie =de =normalI =qT= Y= qfK=ConcomitentI=o=parte=mai=mare=sau=mai=mic=din=fluxul=incident=este=reflectat=n=mediul=NI=funcie=de=coeficientul=de=reflexie=a=suprafeei=de=separaieK==

=

==

cigK=NKRK=oefraciaK===Legile refraciei =NK=areptele=fI=oI=T i =normala=se=afl=n=acelai =plan=Enumit=plan=de=incidenI =perpendicular=pe=suprafaa=de=separaieF=i=sunt=concurente=n=punctul=lI=OK=rnghiul=de=refracie==este=dat=de=legea=pnellJaescartesW==

Tf nn qq sinsin ON = K = = = = = ENKRF==

= qoate=refraciile=sunt=nsoite=de=reflexie=parialI=aa=cum=se=poate=edea=i= din= figura= NKR= Eraza= reflectat= este= desenat= punctatFK= Chiar= i= atunci= cnd=fluxul= luminos= transmis= reprezint= cea= mai= mare= parte= din= cel= incidentI= de=exemplu=la=unghi=incident==qf=Z=MI=o=parte=din=fluxul=incident=este=reflectat=n=primul=mediuK=Acest= fenomen= este==cunoscut= ca= reflexie= EpierdereF=cresnelK=bl=poate=fi=obserat=i=n=iaa=de=zi=cu=ziI=priind=n=special=seara=printrJun=geam=obinuit=i=obsernd=c=acesta=reflect=o=parte=din=lumina=incidentK=

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==NS

= iegea= formulat= de= cresnel= spune= c= din= fluxul= total= Ff= al= unei= raze=incidente= fI= o=cantitate= =FT=Z=Ff .= q= sufer=o=refracie= EtransmisieF= trecnd= n=cellalt=mediu=Eraza=transmis=TFI= iar= o=alt= cantitate=Fo=Z=Ff= .=o=se= reflect=napoi=n=mediul=din=care==proine=Eraza=reflectat=oFI=unde=coeficienii==o=i=q=se= numesc= coeficient= de= reflexieI= respecti= de= transmisie= i= sunt= dai= de=ecuaiileW=

O

NO

NOo

+-=

nnnn

= = = = = ENKSF=

=oNq -= K = = = = = = ENKTF=

==1.3.3. Reflexia total == oeflexia= total=este=un= caz=particular= al=refraciei=i=are=loc=atunci=cnd=raza=incident=pornete=dintrJun=mediu=optic=mai=dens=spre=unul=mai=puin=densK=ia=un=anumit=unghi=zis=criticI=qCI=raza=refractat=nu=mai=prsete=materialul=din=care=a=fost=emisI=ca=n=figura=NKSKbW===

==

cigK=NKSK=oefraciaW==aK=obinuitX==bK=reflexia=total=la=unghi=de=inciden=criticX==cK=reflexia=total=tipicK=

== rnghiul=critic=qC=se=calculeaz=din=legea=lui=pnellW==

OON VMsinsin nnno

C == q = = = = ENKUF=

N

Oarcsinnn

C =q = = = = = ENKVF=

=

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== NT

= ia==reflexia=total=nu=se=pierde=energie=prin=transmisie=n=mediul=OK=oaza=de= lumin= rmne= confinat= EcaptiF= n= mediul= optic= mai= densI= purttoare= a=aceleiai= energii= dup= reflexieK= Acesta= e=mecanismul=ce= st= la= baza= propagrii=radiaiei=prin=fibrele=opticeK=cenomenul=reflexiei=totale=i=gsete=aplicare=i=n==instrumentaia=radio=L=fotoJmetricK===1.3.4. Difuzia aifuzia= este=o= reflexie=multiplI= haotic= EfigK= NKQFI= care= are=drept= efect=rspndirea= unui= fascicol= de= lumin= ntrJun= numr= imens= de= fascicole=secundareI=distribuite=aleatorI=i=and=drept=consecin=atenuarea=progresi=a=fascicolului= incidentK= aifuzia= nu= trebuie= confundat= cu= absorbia= luminii= =pierderea=de=energie=luminoas=prin=transformarea=ei=n=cldurI=sau=alte=forme=de=energieK== bxemple=clasice=suntW=

J= imaginea=unei=guri=de=tunel=cnd=nuntru=este=fum=sau=cea=J=e=uor=de=imaginat= atenuarea= progresi= a= luminii= de= la= intrareK= aac= lipsete=ceaaI=gura=tunelului=se=ede=tot=mai=slab=din=cauza=absorbiei=luminiiX=

J= praful= n= btaia= soareluiI= printrJo= fereastr= Efascicol= paralel= colimat= =soarele=fiind=foarte=departeFK=aac=traseul=razelor=e=lung=Erazele=se=dFI=lumina=este=rspndit=de=particulele=de=praf=i=atenuat=sensibilK=

=1.3.5. Difracia == aifracia= este= proprie= tuturor= undelor= i= faptul= c= lumina= sufer= o=difracie=cnd=trece=pe=lng=un=paraanI=sau=prin=reele=de=difracie=constituie=o=doad=a=caracterului=ei=ondulatoriuK== cenomenul=difraciei=luminii=la=trecerea=pe=lng=un=obstacol=opac=a=fost=eideniat= pentru=prima=dat= de= fsaac=kewton= n= anul= NSSR= EfigK= NKTFK=pe= tia=Efenomen=obserat=de=drimaldiF=c=umbra=paraanului=opac=ml=nu=e=netI=mai=mult= chiarI= c= lumina= bate=puin= n= spatele=paraanului= Ede=parc= la= marginea=obstacolului=ar=aea=loc=o=uoar=ocolireFK=kewton=a=aut=curiozitatea=de=a=prii=marginea=umbrei=cu=un=o=lup i=a=descoperit= franje=de=interferenK=bxplicaia=existenei=franjelor=este=aceea=c=toate=razele=proin=de=la=aceeai=surs=p=Esunt=coerenteFK= captul=c=apar= franje=de= interferen=se=datoreaz=curburii=razelor=n=jurul=obstacoluluiI=adic=difracieiK=== fnterpretarea= conform= principiului= lui= euygens= esteW= punctele= de= la=periferia= paraanului= opac= dein= surse= secundare= cnd= sunt= iluminate= de= la=sursa= pK= oadiaiile= pe= care= le= emit= aceste= surse= secundare= pot= trece= uor= n=spatele=paraanului=i=pot=interferaK=fnterferena=undelor=cu=aceeai=frecen i=faz=EcoerenteI=proenind=de=la=aceeai=sursFI=datorat=diferenelor=de=drumI==a=fost=deja=demonstrat=deja=cu=inelele=lui=kewtonK=

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==NU

=

==

cigK=NKTK==bxperiment=care=eideniaz=difraciaK===1.3.6. Dispersia == aispersia=const=n=mprtierea=razelor=de=lumin=la=ptrunderea=ntrJun=anumit=mediuI= n= funcie=de= lungimea= lor=de=undK= aiferitele= lungimi=de=und=din=lumina=alb=sunt=inegal=refractate=de=unul=i=acelai=materialK=ia=schimbarea=materialului= fenomenul= se= menineI= se= schimb= ns= diersele= mrimi=caracteristiceK=Cum=iteza=luminii=difer=n=materiale=n=funcie=de=lungimea=de=undI= nseamn= c= indicele= de= refracie= este= altul= pentru= fiecare= lungime= de=und=aplicatK== cenomenul =a =fost =raportat =pentru =prima =dat= de =fsaac =kewtonI =care =a =folosit=o=prism=pentru=a=demonstra=dispersia=luminii=albe=EfigK=NKUFK==

==

==

cigK=NKUK=bxperimentul=lui=kewton=pentru=a=eidenia=dispersiaK==

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== NV

= kewton=a=demonstrat=astfel==experimental=structura=curcubeu=a=luminii=albeW = =rouI =portocaliuI = =galbenI = =erdeI = =albastruI = =indigoI = =iolet =i =nuanele =intermediare=dintre=eleK== oazele= roii= Efrecena= cea= mai= joasF= sunt= deiate= cel= mai= puin= la=refracia=prin=prismI=ioletul=este=refractat=cel=mai=puternic=Efrecena=cea=mai=naltFK= n= mod= similar= sunt= deiate= i= undele= inizibileW= infraroul= EfoF= mai=puinI=ultraioletul=ErsF=mai=multK== kewton=a=realizat=i=compunerea=luminii=albeI=prin=experimentul=inersI==folosind=dou=prisme=EfigK=NKVFW===

==

cigK=NKVK=bxperimentul=iners=de=compunere=a=luminiiK===1.3.7. Polarizarea luminii=== iuminaI= ca= orice=und= electromagneticI= este= compus= din= doi= ectori=care= oscileaz= sinusoidal= n= faz= n= planuri= perpendiculare= ntre= ele= i=perpendiculare=pe=direcia=de=propagare=W=ectorul=cmp=magnetic=B i=ectorul==cmp= electric=K= iumina= se= obiectieaz= Eeste= zutI= impresioneaz= pelicula=fotografic=etcKF=datorit=ectorului=cmp=electric=K== iui=fsaac=kewton=i=reine=meritul=de=a=fi=obserat=c=lumina=are=direcie=sau=orientareI=adic=orice=raz=de=lumin=este=mai=mult=sau=mai=puin=polarizatK=oazele=de= la= sursele=primare=naturale= sau= artificiale= EsoareI= becuri= etcKF= au=de=obicei=un=caracter=nepolarizatW=ectorul=cmp=electric==ariaz=n=mod=aleatoriu=ntrJun=plan=perpendicular=pe=direcia=de=propagareK=l=radiaie=care=are=direcii=prefereniale= pentru= ectorul= cmp= electric= indic= o= polarizare= parial= pe=direcia=respectiK=== ae= foarte=multe=ori= lumina= este=parial= polarizatI= din= cauza= uneia= sau=mai=multor=reflexiiK=lrice=reflexie=pe=o=suprafa=neted=contribuie=la=pariala=polarizare= a= luminiiK= l= nelegere= clar= a= polarizrii= pariale= o= primim= prin=aplicarea=principiului=superpoziiei=care=se=poate=folosi=i=n=cazul=luminiiW=orice=

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==OM

fascicol=parial=polarizat=EcF=poate=fi=considerat=o=sum=a=unui=fascicol=polarizat=EbF=cu=un=fascicol=de=lumin=nepolarizat=EaF=EfigK=NKNMFW===

==

cigK=NKNMK=iumina=parial=polarizat=EcFI=rezultat=al=compunerii=unei=radiaii=polarizate=plan=EbF=cu=una=nepolarizat=EaFK=

=== oeamintim= c= oscilaia= = ectorului= cmp= electric= se= face= ntrJun= plan=perpendicular=pe=direcia=de=propagare=En=figura=NKNM=direcia=de=propagare=ar=fi=o= dreapt= perpendicular= pe= planul= foiiFK= Cazul= b= se= mai= numete= polarizare=plan= deoarece= ectorul= cmp= electric=oscileaz= ntrJun= singur= plan= n= timpul=propagrii=luminii=EfigK=NKNNFW=

==

==

cigK=NKNNK=iumina=polarizat=planK===

= bxemple=de=unde=polarizate=plan=suntW=J= undele=radio=folosite=n=transmisiile=qsI=satelitI=radarX=J= undele= laser= la= ieirea= din= colimatorI= dup= ce=reziduul= de=und= cu= alt=

polaritate=a=fost=anulatX=

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== ON

J= razele= de= lumin= trecute= prin= materiale= polaroid= EochelariI= geamuriI=filtrul= pentru= ecranul= de= la= calculatorI= aparate= foto= i= camere= de= luat=ederi=etcKFK=

= me=baza=regulii=de=compunere=ectorialI=lumina=polarizat=plan=se=poate=compune=cu=alte=radiaiiK=Compunnd=dou=unde=cu=aceeai= frecenI=ambele=polarizate= planI= dar= n= cuadraturI= a= rezulta= o= und= cu= ectorul= electric=eolund=pe=o=elice=Edreapt=sau=stngF=n=lungul=direciei=de=propagareK=Acest=procedeu=se=numete=polarizare=circular=a=luminiiK== me= de= alt= parteI= dou= radiaii= polarizate= planI= ortogonaleI= nu= se=influeneaz= reciproc= Eproiecia= ectorului= electric= al= uneia= dintre= radiaii= n=planul=de=oscilaie=al=celeilalte=este=nulF=i=sunt=nemiscibileK=ae=aceeaI=priind=imagini= polarizate= orizontal= prin= ochelari= cu= polarizare= erticalI= imaginea=rmne=inizibilK=l=ntrebuinare=practic=a=acestui=fenomen=este=ncrcarea=pe=una= i= aceeai= purttoare= a= celor= dou= polariti= nemiscibile= Eorizontal i=erticalF=rezultnd=o=capacitate=de=transmisie=dublK=mrocedeul=este=larg=utilizat=n=microundeI=teleiziuneI=radioreleeI=satelii=i=transmisii=pe=fibr=opticK== Cel=mai=simplu=mod=de=a=obine=lumin=polarizat=a=fost=demonstrat=de=_rewsterK =bl =a =constatat =c= iluminnd=sticla =sub =un =unghi =de =circa =RTMI =care =i =poart=numeleI=rezult=dou=raze=polarizate=ortogonal=EfigK=NKNOFK=mentru=reuita=experimentului= se= folosete= ca= raz= incident= f= lumina= parial= polarizat=obinut=prin=reflexia=pe=o=prim=oglindK==oaza=reflectat=o=este=polarizat=ntrJun= plan= perpendicular= pe= planul= de= incidenI= iar= raza= refractat= T= este=polarizat= n= planul= de= incidenK= n= aceast= situaie= raza= reflectat= este=perpendicular=pe=raza=refractatK=

==

==

cigK=NKNOK=molarizarea=luminii=prin=reflexieK==

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==OO

== saloarea=de=RTM==se=obine=aplicnd=legea=lui=pnell=n=punctul=lW==

BrsticlaosticlaBraer nnn qqq cossinsin == = = EOKNMF=

aer

sticlaBr n

ntg =q = = = = EOKNNF=

@= RTaer

sticlaBr n

narctgq = = = EOKNOF=

= rltima=egalitate=este=relaia=de=definiie=a=unghiului=_rewsterI=la=care=are=loc=polarizarea=total=a=celor=dou=raze=emergenteK==1.3.8. Interferena luminii=== fnterferena=luminii=a=fost=demonstrat=de=voung=cu=dispozitiul=care=i=poart=numele=EfigK=NKNPFK=iumina=de=la=sursa=p=este=trecut=printrJo=diafragm=ngust=de=pe=panoul=mlN=pentru=a= obine=o=surs=casiJpunctiformK=Conform=principiului=lui=euygens=orice=punct=de=pe=o=suprafa=de=und=este=centrul=unei=noi=unde=elementareI=astfel= nct= nfurtoarea=tuturor=undelor=elementare==a=fi=o=suprafa=de=und=ntrJun=moment=ulteriorK=Cele=dou=diafragme=nguste=de=pe= panoul= mlO= constituie= dou= surse= secundare= de= luminW= pN i= pOK= rndele=proenite=de= la= aceste=dou= surse= interfereaz= pe=un= ecranK=colosind= o= lentil=conergent=franjele=dein=mai=neteK===

==

cigK=NKNPK=bxperimentul=lui=voung=pentru=eidenierea=interferenei=luminiiK==

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== OP

== bxist=dou=situaii=posibile=ale=compunerii=undelor=pe=ecranW==

J= dac= cele= dou= unde= sunt= defazate= cu= NUMMI= a= aea= loc=o= interferen=distructi=rezultnd=franje=ntunecateX=

J= dac=cele=dou=unde=sunt=n=fazI=a=aea=loc=o=interferen=constructi=rezultnd=franje=luminoaseK=

== bxperimentul= lui= voung=demonstreaz=c=undele=coerente= interfereazK=bl= reprezint= cel= mai= simplu= mod= n= care= se= pot= obine= dou= unde= coerente=dintrJo=surs=unicK=bste=o=doad=a=caracterului=ondulatoriu=al=luminiiK== 1.4. Lentile=== ientilele= sunt= dispozitie= din= sticlI= plastic= sau= alte= materiale=transparente= care= focalizeaz= sau= mprtie= razele= de= luminK= Constituie= un=subiect=att=de=amplu=nct=o=ntreag=literatur=de=specialitate=le=este=dedicatK=kumai=materialelor=din=care=se=fabric=leJau=fost=dedicate=numeroase=criK== ientilele= sunt= descrise= prin= forma= suprafeelor= care= le= mrginescW=conexeI=planeI=concae=sau=combinaii=ale=acestoraK== ientilele= conergente= colimeaz= un= flux= de= lumin= diergentI= adic=adun=ntrJun=fascicol=subire=de=raze=paralele=razele=diergenteI=sau=focalizeaz=un=fascicol=paralel=EfigK=NKNQFK====

==

cigK=NKNQK=Aciunea=lentilelor=conergenteK=

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==OQ

= Ca= i= caracteristic= constructi= generalI= lentilele= conergente= sunt=mai=groase=la=mijloc=i=pot=fi=planJconexeI=biconexe=sau=menisc=conergent=EfigK=NKNRFK=

=

==

cigK=NKNRK=qipuri=de=lentile=conergenteK==

= ientilele=diergente=pot=transforma=un=fascicol=conergent=ntrJunul=plan=paralelI=sau=pot=mprtia=un=fascicol=paralel=EfigK=NKNSFK===

==

cigK=NKNS=Aciunea=lentilelor=diergenteK==

= Ca= i= caracteristic= constructi= generalI= ele= sunt= mai= groase= la=margine=i=pot=fi=planJconcaeI=biconcae=sau=menisc=diergentK=EfigK=NKNTFK==

==

cigK=NKNT=qipuri=de=lentile=diergenteK=

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== OR

= fndicele= de= refracie= depinde= de= material= i= de= lungimea= de= und= a=radiaiei=aplicateK=Aceasta=poate=s=nsemne=c=diferite=culori=sunt=focalizate=n=puncte=diferite= Eaberaie=cromaticFI= ceea= ce= constituie=o=problem= serioas= n=tehnica= ideo= L= fotoK= Aceasta= presupune= corecia= fenomenului= descris= = n=adncimeI= = n= lungul=axului=optic=principalI= rezultnd=ansambluri=de= lentile= n=locul=uneia=singureK=lbiectiul=unei=camere=de=luat=ederiI=sau=al=unui=aparat=de=fotografiatI=reduce=aproape=toate=aberaiile=cromaticeK==1.5. Surse de radiaie === pursa=punctiform=de=lumin=este=o=surs=fr=dimensiuni=o=abstracie=pe=care= realitatea= poate= doar= s= o= aproximezeW= o= stea= aflat= la= distan= de= ani=luminI=un= far= ndeprtat=etcK=oazele=de=lumin=sosite=de=la=astfel=de=deprtri=sunt=plan=paraleleK=ble=pleac=ns=n=multe=direcii=de=la=surs=EpAI=pBI=pCI=KKKF=EfigK=NKNUFK== l= surs= extins= de= lumin= genereaz= radiaii= luminoase=pe=o=suprafa=EfigK= NKNVFI= iar= obiectul= m= este= iluminat= din= mai= multe= direciiI= de= mai= multe=puncte=care=trimit=unde=luminoase=spre=mK=l=lamp=fulger=Eflash=sau=blitzF=este=o=surs=extins=de=luminK=aac=ns=este=zut=de=la=distan=mare=Ede=exemplu=OMM=mF=ea=seamn=cu=o=surs=punctiformK==

==

cigK=NKNUK=purs=de=lumin=punctiformK===

==

cigK=NKNVK=purs=de=lumin=extinsK=

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==OS

Constanta solar == bxist=surse=de=lumin=natural=primare==soareleI= steleleI=aurora=etcK= i=surse=de=lumin=secundar==planetele=i=sateliii=lorK=fntensitatea=radiaiei=solare=n= id= este= de= ccaK= NQM= mtLcmOK= Aceasta= se= numete= constanta= solar= sau=radiana=solarK== poarele=emite=radiaii=ntrJun=spectrul=larg=de=lungimi=de=undI=din=careI=cele=din=domeniul=optic=sunt=cuprinse=ntre==Rnm=i=QmmW=

J= infraroii=EfoF=TRMnm==QmmX=J= unde=izibile=PVMnm==TRMnmX=J= ultraiolete=ErsF=Rnm==PVMnmK=

= Aceste=radiaii=sunt=uneori=numite=luminX=dar=doar=radiaiile=din=spectrul=izibil=sunt=cu=aderat=luminoaseK=Constanta=solar=include=radiaiile=infraroii=i=pe=cele=ultraioleteK== fnstrumentele= care= msoar= radiaiile= izibile= se= numesc= fotometre= iar=tehnica= de= msurare= fotometrieK= jsurarea= intensitii= radiaiilor= inizibile=adiacente=spectrului= izibil= = infraroii=i= ultraiolete== se= face=cu= radiometreI=iar=domeniul=se=numete=radiometrieK===1.6. Mrimi i uniti ==1.6.1. Intensitatea unei surse punctiforme=== som=reaminti=noiunea=de=unghi=solidK==cie=p=proiecia=unui=obiect=m=pe=o=sfer=de=raz=o=cu=centrul=n=punctul=l=EfigK=NKOMFW===

==

cigK=NKOMK=rnghiul=solidK===

= rnghiul=solid=corespunztor=obiectului=m=este=unghiul=solid=delimitat=de=suprafaa=lateral=a=conului=cu=centrul=n=lI=and=ca=baz=suprafaa=pW=

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== OT

zxO

srop=W K== = = = = ENKNPF=

== rnitatea=de=msur=a=unghiului=solid=este=steradianul=EsrFK= nlocuind=n=ecuaia= ENKNPF= aria= suprafeei= p= cu= aria= sferei= QpoO= obinem= unghiul= solid=maximW=Qp=srK== cotonii=emii=de=o=surs=creeaz=un=fluxul=luminosI=care=corespunde=unei=anumite=puteri=radianteK=fntensitatea=luminoas=a=unei=surse=punctiforme=este=o=mrime=radiometric i=reprezint=puterea=luminoas=emis=n=unitatea=de=unghi=solidK=ba=se=msoar=n=tLsrW==

zLx srtmf o W= I = = = = = ENKNQF=

unde=m=xtz=reprezint=puterea==radiaieiK=== n=fotometrieI= intensitatea=unei=surse=punctiforme=se=msoar=n=candele=sau=lumeniLsteradian=ENcd=Z=N=lmLsrFW==

zxcdf i WF= I== = = = = ENKNRF=

unde=F=xlmz=reprezint=fluxul=luminosK===1.6.2. Intensitatea luminoas a unei surse superficiale == fntensitatea= unei= surse= extinseI= numit i= exitan= sau= radianI= se=msoar= n= tLcmO i= reprezint= cantitatea= de= flux= emis= pe= unitatea= de=suprafaW==

zLx OcmtpmBo = I = = = = = ENKNSF=

unde=este=m=este=puterea==luminoas=iar=p=este=aria=surseiK=== fntensitatea= unei= surse= extinse= se= msoar= n= uniti= fotometrice= n=lmLcmOW=

zLx Ocmlmp

BiF= I = = = = = ENKNTF=

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==OU

1.7. Experimente care evideniaz natura corpuscular a luminii

== bxist=dou=experimente=clasice=care=nu=pot= fi=explicate=pe=baza= teoriei=ondulatorii=a=luminiiW=

J= efectul=fotoelectric=extern==pus=n=eiden=de=eeinrich=eertz=n=NUUT=i=de=eallwachs=n=NUUUX=

J= efectul= ComptonI= care= const= n= schimbarea= lungimii= de= und= a=radiaiilor=ontgen=la=mprtierea=pe=atomi=uori=de=grafitI=descoperit=de=Compton=n=NVOPK=

=1.7.1. Efectul fotoelectric extern=== n= NUUTI= eeinrich= eertz= folosea= nalt= tensiune= pentru= a= genera= unde=electromagnetice=prin=scnteiK=mentru=aceasta=ncrca=electrostatic=dou=sfere=de=metalK= eertz= a= obserat= c= descrcarea= prin= arc= electric= este= mult= uurat= de=iluminarea=uneia=dintre=sfere=cu=lumin=ultraioletK== rn= an= mai= trziuI= eallwachs= constat= c= o= plac= de= zinc= electrizat=negati=sau=neelectrizatI=se=pozitieaz=sub=radiaie=ultraioletK=== bfectul= fotoelectric= extern= se= demonstreaz= cu= dispozitiul= din= figura=NKONW=un=tub=similar=unei=diode=cu=idI=care=are=n=plus=o=fereastr=de=cuar=prin=care=e=posibil=iluminarea=spaiului=dintre=anod=i=catodK====

==

cigK=NKONK=aispozitiul=pentru=demonstrarea=efectului=fotoelectric=externK===bxperimentul=a=doedit=cW=

J= radiaia= ultraiolet= stimuleaz= conduciaX= chiar= la= sAh= Z =MI= exist= un=curent=pe=seama=electronilor=smuli=de=radiaieX=

J= lungimea= de= und= a= radiaiei= ultraiolete= este= determinant= pentru=amplitudinea= curentuluiK= ia= creterea= frecenei= Edin= fluxul= ultraiolet=incidentI= frecena= L= lungimea= de= und= dorit= se= selecteaz= cu= filtre=

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== OV

plasate= n= fereastra= tubuluiFI= curentul= creteK= Curentul= depindeI= de=asemeneaI=de=mrimea=fluxului=incidentI=dac=frecena=este=constantX=

J= exist= o= aloare= de= prag= a= frecenei= radiaiei= ultraioleteI= sub= care=fenomenul=nu=are=locK=

== Aceste= proprieti= pot= fi= explicate= numai= fcnd= apel= la= noiunea= de=fotonK=ble=nu=pot=fi=explicate=pe=baza=teoriei=ondulatorii=a=luminiiK== jax=mlanc=a= aut= la= nceputul= secolului= reelaia= c= energia= asociat=electronilor=poate=aria=numai=n=trepteK=l=singur=porie=de=energie=a=primit=denumirea=de=cuantK=rlterior= ENVMRF=binstein=a=introdus=o=particul=denumit=fotonI=care=este=o=cuant=de=energieI= cu=att=mai=mare=cu=ct= frecena=sa=este=mai=mareK=bnergia=unui=foton=se=scrieW==

n= ht = = = = = ENKNUF=undeW=

zxNMOORIS PQ sgh = - = = = = ENKNVF=este=constanta=lui=mlancK=== me=baza= interpretrii= corpusculare=a=naturii= luminiiI= efectul= fotoelectric=extern= poate= fi= interpretat= n= felul= urmtorK= jaterialul= catodului= din= tub= este=bombardat= de= fotonii= fascicolului= de= lumin= rs= transmis= prin= fereastra= de=cuarK= cotonii= absorbii= excit= atomii= care= i= capteazI= adic= trec= electronii=acestor= atomi=pe=niele=superioare=de=energieI= acolo=unde=sunt=mai=slab=legai=de= nucleul= atomilor= de= care= aparinK= pub= imperiul= tensiunii= de= sute= de= oli=aplicateI= o= parte= din= electroni= se= desprind= din= catodI= ndreptnduJse= n= mod=accelerat= Edeplasare= n= cmp= electric= uniformF= spre= anodK= Cum= energia=transmis= de= fotoni= depinde= de= frecena= lor= n, i= energia= fotoJelectronilor= =depinde= de= frecena= respectiK= iucrul= mecanic= de= ieire= Ede= extracie= a=electronilor= din=materialul=catoduluiF=a=fi=cu=att=mai=uor=de=asigurat=cu=ct=frecena=n= este=mai=mareK=Curentul=maxim=prin=microampermetru=a=reflecta=acest=faptK=mentru=n=Z=constant=or=exista=cu=att=mai=muli=fotoelectroniI=cu=ct=fluxul=incident=a=fi=mai=intensK=== qoate= aceste= proprieti= pot= fi= explicate= doar= admind= existena=fotonului=i=nu=pe=baza=teoriei=ondulatoriiK==1.7.2. Efectul Compton == A= fost= descoperit= n= NVOP= de= Compton= pe= cnd= acesta= experimenta=difracia=razelor=u=pe=atomi=uoriK== rn= fascicol= ontgen= obinut= dintrJun= enotronI= relati= colimat= prin=trecerea=printrJun=perete=cu=fant=Eoricum=razele=u==rmn=diergenteFI=cade=pe=

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==PM

o=bucat=de=grafitI=material=cu=greutate=atomic=redusK=oezultatul=interaciunii=este=ealuat=cu=ajutorul=unui=spectrometru=la=dierse=unghiuri=q==n=jurul=probei=de =grafit =EfigK =NKOOFK =pe =constat= n =acest =fel =c= n =radiaia =emergent= se =regsete= frecena= incidentI= dar= i= o= nou= frecen= mai= joas= Elungime= de=und=mai=mareFI=numit=frecen=Elungime=de=undF=ComptonK===

==

cigK=NKOO=bxperimentul=lui=Compton==== bfectul= Compton= nu= poate= fi= explicat= cu= ajutorul= teoriei= ondulatoriiK=Conform= acestei= teoriiI= radiaiile= electromagnetice= mprtiate= ar= aea= aceeai=lungime=de=und=ca=i=radiaiile=incidenteK== bxplicarea= acestui= fenomen= a= fost= dat= de= ctre= Compton= pe= baza=interaciunii= dintre= un= foton= i= un= electron= al= substanei= mprtietoareK=Considernd= ciocnirea= fotonJelectron= ca= o= ciocnire= elastic i= impunnd=respectarea=legilor=de=conserare=a=energiei=i= impulsuluiI=Compton=calculeaz=c= trebuie= s= apar= o= deiaie= a= lungimii= de= und= dependent= de= unghi= i=independent=de=materialul=mprtietorW==

OsinO O ql L=D I = = = = = ENKOMF=

undeW=

cmh

=L

MI = = = = = = ENKONF=

se=numete=lungimea=de=und=ComptonI=iar== mM==masa=fotonului=n=repaus=i== c==iteza=luminii=n=idK=== Aceste= proprieti= au= fost= n= primul= rnd= stabilite= experimentalK=bxplicarea=lor= cu=ajutorul=relaiei= ENKONFI=dedus= n=ipoteza=fotonic= a= luminiiI=constituie=nc=o=doad=a=alabilitii=acestei=ipotezeK==

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== PN

2. DIODE ELECTROLUMINISCENTE (LEDuri)=

==2.1. Electroluminiscena jonciunii p-n blectroluminiscena=n=solide=este=un=fenomen=cunoscut=de=muli=ani=i=studiat=n=profunzimeK=mrobabil=c=aplicaia=cea=mai=larg=a=electroluminiscenei=este= ecranul= qsK= Cunoscut= sub= numele= de= luminiscen= catodicI= aceast=form= de= electroluminiscen= este= cauzat= de= impactul= electronilor= puternic=accelerai=cu=luminoforul=depus=pe=faa=interioar=a=tubului=catodicK=n=prezent=tubul= catodic= cedeaz= locul= ecranului= cu= cristale= lichide= aproape= n= toate=aplicaiile=EqsI=monitoare=de=calculatorI=radare=etcKF=

ntre=numeroasele=tipuri=de=elctroluminiscen=cunoscuteI=unul=a=deschis=un= domeniu= complet= nou= al= tehnologieiW= electroluminiscena= de= injecie= a=jonciunii= pJnK =bmisia =de =lumin= a =unei =jonciuni =pJn =a =fost =obserat= pentru =prima=oar=de=iossew=n=NVOPK=jai=trziu=Ecirca=NVSOF=sJa=constatat=c=se=pot=obine=nieluri=relati=mari=de=energie=luminoas=din=jonciuni=pJn=de=arseniur=de=galiu=EdaAsFK=ain=NVSOI=un=program=internaional=de=proporii=a=fost=orientat=spre=producerea= unui= dispoziti= electroluminiscent= emitor= de= luminK= ae= pe=atunci=ideea=era=deosebit=de=atracti=and=n=edere=aantajele=ateptate=de=la=dispozitiul=ce=urma=s=se=nascW=

J= cureni=i=tensiuni=mici=de=alimentareX=J= precizia=de=determinare=a=ariei=luminoase=specific=proceselor=litografice=

implicateK=J= iteza= mare= de= comutaie= cu= care= trebuia= s= poat= fi= comandat=

dispozitiulK=aispozitiul= care= sJa= nscut= astfel= a= fost= dioda= electroluminiscentI=

denumit=pe=scurt=iba=care=este=acronimul=denumirii=din=limba=englezW=iight=bmitting=aiodeK===2.1.1. Modelul n benzi energetice a jonciunii p-n = n=materialele=semiconductoareI= ca= de=altfel= n= toate=solidele=cristalineI=electronii=pot=ocupa=doar=anumite=niele=energeticeK=_anda=de=conducie=EBCF=i=banda=de=alen= EBsF= sunt=denumiri= date=benzilor= cu=nielele=energetice=cele=mai=mari=care=pot= fi=ocupate=de=electroni= n=materialele=semiconductoare=pureK==kielul= inferior=al=benzii=de=conducie=i=nielul=superior=al=benzii=de=alen=sunt= separate= de= un= interal= energetic= EbdF= denumit= band= interzisK= n=

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==PO

materialele=semiconductoare=pureI=acest=interal=energetic=nu=poate=fi=ocupat=de=electroniK== bste= posibilI= nsI= s= se= introduc= impuriti= n= semiconductorI=genernduJse=astfel=niele=energetice=n= interiorul=benzii= interziseK= fmpuritile=care= cedeaz= electroni= n= banda= de= conducie= sunt= denumite= donori= i=semiconductorul=rezultat=este=de=tip=n= Edatorit= sarcinii=negatie=a=purttorilor=electrici=majoritari=care=sunt=electroniiFK= fmpuritile=care=accept=electroni=din=banda= de= alen= genernd= acolo= goluri= sunt= denumite= acceptori= i=semiconductorul= rezultat= este= de= tip= p= Edatorit= sarcinii=pozitie=a= purttorilor=electrici=majoritari=care=sunt=golurileFK=_enzile=energetice=i=nielele=energetice=donoare=i=acceptoare=dintrJun=semiconductor=sunt=ilustrate=n=figura=OKNW===

==

cigK=OKNK=oeprezentare=schematicW==aK=semiconductor=de=tip=nX==bK=semiconductor=de=tip=pX==cK==jonciune=pJnK=

=== l= jonciune= pJn= se= poate= forma= ntrJun= material= semiconductor= prin=doparea=unei=regiuni=cu=atomi=donori=i=a=regiunii=adiacente=cu=atomi=acceptori=EfigKOKNKcFK= n= aceast= situaieI= electronii= i= golurile= se= or= deplasa= traersnd=jonciunea= n= sensuri= contrareI=pn=cnd= se=a= ajunge= la= o=stare=de=echilibruK=Aceasta=a=duce=la=apariia=unei=bariere=de=potenialI=bBI=deJa=lungul=jonciuniiK=n= figurile= OKNKa= i= OKNKb= sunt= ilustrate= strile= energetice= din= semiconductor=nainte=de=atingerea=acestei=stri=de=echilibruI=iar=n=figura=OKNKcK=dup=atingerea=acestei= striK= Aceast= barier= de= potenial= a= face= dificil= traersarea= n=continuare=a=jonciunii=de=ctre=purttorii=de=sarcinK== aac=ns=se=polarizeaz=direct=jonciunea=Epotenial=mai=mareI=pozitiI=aplicat= regiunii= p i= mai=micI=negatiI= = aplicat= regiunii= nFI= procesul= acesta= de=traersare=a=barierei=de=potenial=este=ntreinutK=cluxul=de=purttori=En=ambele=sensuri= = de= aceea= materialul= se= numete= bipolarF= se= menine=pe= toat= durata=

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== PP

polarizrii=jonciuniiK=oecombinrile=electronilor=i=a=golurilor=EfigK=OKOF=care=au=loc= n= mod= continuu= genereaz= energie= sub= form= de= fononiK= cononii= sunt=cuante=de=energie=emise=de=recombinrile=din=siliciu=EpiFI=energia=rezultat=fiind=insuficient=pentru=eliberarea=de=fotoniK=ia=siliciuI=energia=eliberat=n=procesele=de= recombinare= se= transfer= reelei= cristaline= sub= form= de= ibraiiI= adic= se=transform=n=cldurK===

==

cigK=OKOK=aeplasarea=i=recombinarea=purttorilor=de=sarcin=ntrJo=jonciune=pJn=polarizat=directK==== n= arseniura= de= galiu= EdaAsFI= ca= i= n= restul= materialelor= fotoemisieI=energia=eliberat= la=recombinarea=electronJgol= Eaproximati=bdF=este=suficient=eliberrii= de= fotoni= iI= potriit= modelului= descrisI= procesul= este= ntreinut= att=timp= ct= polarizarea= direct= este= meninutK= ae= aici= durata= de= ia=considerabil=a=diodelor=electroluminiscenteK===2.1.2. Materiale fotoemisive cu emisie direct i

indirect == jaterialele= cum= sunt= daAs= i= compoundul= EaliajulF= de= daAsm= se=caracterizeaz= prin= recombinri= radiatieI= realizate= prin= tranziii= directeK= Cnd=un= electron= din= banda= de= conducie= ocup= un= gol= din= banda= de= alenI= este=emis=un= fotonI=o=cuant=de=energie=i=distana=Ediferena=energeticF=parcurs=de= electronul= dezexcitat= spontan= este= aproximati= egal= cu= lrgimea= benzii=interzise=DbN=Z=bd==EfigK=OKQKaFK== Cum= = lrgimea= benzii= interzise= este= alta= pentru= fiecare= materialI= este=natural=ca=s=se=schimbe=frecena=Elungimea=de=undF=a= fotonului=emisI=adic=culoarea=radiaiei=emise=pentru=fiecare=materialK=Culoarea=corespunde=frecenei=dominante=din=spectrul=radiatK=

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==PQ

= jaterialeleI=ca=de=exemplu=damI=se=caracterizeaz=prin=tranziii=indirecte=ale= electronilor= din= banda= de= alen= n= banda= de= conducieI= adic= procesul=recombinrii= este= fragmentat= n= doi= timpi= EfigK= OKQKbFK= me= seama= impuritilor=dopante=se=creeaz=n=modelul=energetic=un=niel=intermediar=Ede=captareF=situat=ntre =banda =de =conducie =i =banda =de =alenI =n =zona =interzisK =cizicI =i =corespund=centre=de=recombinare=EtrappingJcenters===capcaneF=n=materialul=pI=numite=centre=izoJelectroniceK=ble=funcioneaz=ca=i=capcane=de=electroni=i=pun= mpreun= electronii= care= se=dezexcit= spontan= din= banda= de= conducie=pe=

nielul=intermediar=cu=golurile=prezente=n=centrele=de=captare=Ei=golurile=sunt==captate=n=capcanI=numai=c=golurile=sunt=luate=din=banda=de=alenFK=bfectul=este=formarea= de= excitoni= = se= = formeaz= o= pereche= de=purttori= electronJgol= care= graiteaz= unul= n= jurul=celuilaltI= la= fel= ca= un= electron= n= jurul= unui= nucleu=poziti=EfigK=OKPKFK==

cigK=OKPK=cormarea=de=excitoni=== pe=nielul=de=captareK==== jaterialele=cu=tranziie=indirect=permit=un=mai=mare=grad=de=libertate=n=alegerea=lui=DbOI= cu= scopul= de=a= genera= aproape=orice= lungime=de=undK= aoar=tranziia=de=pe=nielul=intermediar=n=banda=de=alen=este=o=tranziie=radiati=i=are=loc=cu=emisia=unui=foton=EfigK=OKQKbFK===

==

cigK=OKQK=mrocesul=de=recombinare=al=purttorilor=de=sarcin=laW=aK=materiale=cu=tranziie=directX==bK=materiale=cu=tranziie=indirect=K=

==

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== PR

= kotaia= compoundurilor= ternareI= de= exemplu= pentru= daAsmI= se= face=astfelW== = = daAsNJxmx=Z=EdaAsFNJx=H=EdamFx=I=unde=x=reprezint=fracia=molarK== mrincipalele= alori= ale= benzii= interzise= la= materialele= curent= folosite= n=electronica=corpului=solid=sunt=date=n=continuareW===

jaterial= Limea=benzii=interzise=bd=xesz=

iungimea=de=und==a==radiaiei=emise=

l=xnmz=Cdp= OIQ= RNS=dam= OIO= RSM=daAsSMmQM= NIV= SRM=Cdpe= NIT= TPM=daAs= NIQ= VMM=pi= NIN= NNQM=de= MIT= NUUM=mbp= MIPT= PPRM=mbqe= MIOV= QOTR=mbpe= MIOS= QTTM=

=== aiodele= electroluminiscente= comercializate= n= prezent= folosesc= daAsI=damI=compoundul=ternar=daAsSMmQM i=compoundurile=cu=aluminiuK== n= tabelul= urmtor= sunt= date= principalele= caracteristici= ale= materialelor=electroluminiscente=folosite=n=fabricarea=ibaurilorW===

=jaterialul=

_anda=interzis==bd=xesz=

_anda==radiat=Dl=xnmz=

Centrul=l=Mxnmz=

=Culoarea=

qipul=tranziiei=

daAs= NIQ= = VMM= fo= airect=

daAsm= NIV= SQM==TMM= SRM=SNM=

rou=galben=

airect=

dam= OIO= SPM==TVM=ROM==RTM=

SVM=RSM=

rou=erde=

fndirect=

daAlAs= [O= SRM==TMM= STM= rou= fndirect=AldaAs= [O= UPU==UQQ= UQM= fo= fndirect=

==

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==PS

= n= cazul= materialelor= care= nu= sJau= doedit= utile= n= optoelectronicI=lungimile=de=und=cad=n=afara=spectrului=izibil=EQMM=J=TMMnmF=i=chiar=al=celui=opticW==

jaterialul= _anda=interzis==bd=xesz=

iungimea=de=und=l=xnmz=

qipul=tranziiei=

de= MISS= NUUM= fndirect=pi= NIMV= NNQM= fndirect=fnpb= MINU= SVMM= airect=piC= OIO==P= QNP==RSP= fndirect=

==2.1.3. Calculul lungimii de und radiate de un material

fotoemisiv == oelaia=dintre=lungimea=de=und i=frecena=radiaiei=esteW=

nlN== cTc K = = = = = EOKNF=

= oelaia= dintre= lungimea= de= und i= interalul= energetic= Db= ce=caracterizeaz=tranziia=esteW=

lnchhb ==D K = = = = = EOKOF=

= ae=aici=rezult=lungimea=de=und=lW=

bch

D=l I = = = = = = EOKPF=

undeW=c=este=iteza=luminii=n=id=iar=h=este=constanta=lui=mlanK=== colosind=unitile=de=msur=standard==

zx

zxzx

gbsmcsgh

mD

=l = = = = EOKQF=

i=aplicnd=conersiile=aferenteW=zxNMzx V nmm ll = = = = = = EOKRF=

zxNMSKNzx NV esbgb D=D - == = = EOKSF=obinem= o= formul= practic= pentru= a= determina= lungimea= de= und= a= radiaiei=emiseI=n=nanometriI=n=funcie=de=interalul=energetic Db=W=

[ ]zx

NOQMesb

nmD

=l = = = = = EOKTF=

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== PT

2.2. Elemente constructive caracteristice ale LEDurilor

== Cele= ctea= elemente= tehnologice= date= n= continuare= reprezint=proprieti= specifice= ibaurilorI= independente= de= productor= sau= anul=fabricaieiK= jajoritatea= ibaurilor= nsI= se= fabricI= n= prezentI= n= arii= sau= fac=parte=din=afiaje=integrate=mpreun=cu=optica=i=drierele=lorK== ibaurile= se= asambleaz= industrial= pe= structuri= metalice= care= reunesc=terminalele= EfigK= OKRFK=Aceste= structuri= sunt= denumite= n= limba= englez= "damJbars"==stilare=i=sunt=realizate=din=aliaj=de=cupru=acoperit=cu=argintK==

==

cigK=OKRK=_and=cu=terminale=folosit=n=procesul=de=fabricaieK==

aup=ataarea=chipJurilor=semiconductoareI=turnarea=capsulei=ElentileiF=i=rigidizarea=ei=incipie