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UNIVERSITATEA DE TIINE AGRONOMICE I MEDICIN VETERINAR BUCURETI

Facultatea de Agricultur

FIA DISCIPLINEI

Biodiversitatea agroecosistemelor

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DIVERSITY INDICES: SHANNON'S H AND E

I#trod'ctio#/A diversitL inde4 is a mat6emati)a* measure o2 spe)ies diversitL in a )ommunitL. DiversitLindi)es provide more in2ormation a7out )ommunitL )omposition t6an simp*L spe)ies ri)6ness =i.e.: t6e num7ero2 spe)ies present> t6eL a*so taMe t6e re*ative a7undan)es o2 di22erent spe)ies into a))ount =2or an i**ustrationo2 t6is point: see 7e*o, or introduction to SIMPSON'S D AND E).

Importance: Diversity indices provide important information about rarity and commonness of species in a

community. The ability to quantify diversity in this way is an important tool for biologists trying to

understand community structure.

Question:How do we measure diversity?

Variables:

H Shannon's diversity index

S total number of species in the community

(richness)

pi proportion of Smade up of the ith species

EH equitability (evenness)

Methods:The Shannon diversity index (H) is another index that is commonly used to characterize species

diversity in a community. Like Simpson'sindex, Shannon's index accounts for both abundance and evenness

of the species present. The proportion of species irelative to the total number of species (pi) is calculated,

and then multiplied by the natural logarithm of this proportion (lnpi). The resulting product is summed

across species, and multiplied by -1:

Shannon's equitability (EH) can be calculated by dividing HbyHmax(hereHmax= lnS). Equitability assumes a

value between 0 and 1 with 1 being complete evenness.
http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/shannonDI.html#Example:http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/shannonDI.html#Example:http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.htmlhttp://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/simpsonDI.html

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Example:The graph below showsH andEH for four hypothetical communities, each consisting of 100 individuals.

The communities are composed of 5, 10, 20 and 50 species, respectively. For each community H andEH

have been calculated for the case in which individuals are distributed evenly among the different species

(i.e., each species makes up an equal proportion of S), and for the case in which one species has 90% of the

individuals, and the remaining individuals are distributed evenly. For example, in a community with 10

species in which the species contain equal numbers of individuals,p = 0.1 for each species. In a community

with 10 species in which one species has 90% of the individuals, p= 0.9 for the dominant species, andp=

0.01 for the other nine species. The diamonds representHandEHvalues for the first case (equal proportions),

and the triangles represent values forHandEHfor the second case (unequal proportions).

For the first case, EH is always equal to one (complete evenness, or equitability), but H increases

dramatically as the number of species increases, as we would expect. For the second case, in which one

species makes up 90% of the community, the picture is a little different. Here we can see that although H

does increase with increasing numbers of species, it does so much more slowly than in the first case.

Additionally, EHdecreases as species number increases (since one species always makes up 90% of the

community in the second case of this hypothetical example, the remaining species make up some fraction of

10% of the community; as species number increases this fraction becomes smaller and evenness decreases).

H andEHclearly give more information about these communities than would species number (richness)

alone.

The following table contains data from a study of Costa Rican ant diversity (Roth et al. 1994). The authors

measured diversity in four different habitats ranging very low levels of human disturbance (primary rain

forest) to very high levels of human disturbance (banana plantations) to assess the impacts of different levelsof disturbance on biological diversity. For each habitat studied we will use data collected from one site

within that habitat. The numbers below represent relative proportions of each species (from Roth et al. 1994

[family names have been omitted]).

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(skip table for now)

Formicidae

Primary

Forest

Abandoned

cacao

plantations

Productive

cacao

plantations

Banana

plantations

Acromyrmexsp. 1 0.013

A. volcanus 0.006

A. araneoides 0.117 0.140

Atta cephalotes 0.010

Carabarellasp. 1 0.004

Cardiocondylasp. 1 0.011

Crematogastersp. 2 0.021 0.024

Cyphomyrmexsp. 1 0.011

Erebomyrma nevermanni 0.004 0.021

Pheidolesp. 1 0.021 0.035 0.019

Pheidolesp. 2 0.008 0.045 0.013

Pheidolesp. 3 0.058 0.021

Pheidolesp. 5 0.054 0.010

Pheidolesp. 7 0.006

Pheidolesp. 9 0.021

Pheidolesp. 10 0.004


Pheidolesp. 12 0.004 0.003



Pheidolesp. 19 0.004 0.017

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Pheidolesp. 24 0.017 0.011







Pheidolesp. 36 0.125 0.007

P. annectans 0.079 0.028 0.005

P. longiscapa 0.050 0.003

P. punctatissima 0.005

P.nr. subarmata 0.003

P. subarmata 0.043

P. fiorii 0.075

Sericomyrmexsp. 1 0.006

Solenopsissp. 1 0.004 0.006

Solenopsissp. 3 0.004 0.077

Solenopsissp. 4 0.017






S. geminata 0.031 0.101 0.830

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Tetramorium

bicarinatum

0.005

Trachymyrmexsp. 1 0.003 0.019

Trachymyrmexsp. 2

Trachymyrmexsp. 3 0.004 0.007

Wasmanniasp. 1 0.011

W. auropunctata 0.050 0.021 0.006

Pseudomyrmexsp. 1

Ectatomma gibbum 0.004

E. ruidum 0.004 0.038 0.753

E. tuberculatum

Gnamptogenyssp. 2

Gnamptogenyssp. 3

Gnamptogenyssp. 4

G. bispinosa

Hypoponerasp. 1 0.004 0.010

Hypoponerasp. 2 0.007



Odontomachus bauri

O. brunneus 0.004

O. chelifer 0.021

O. erythrocephalus 0.017 0.006 0.043

O. hastatus

O. laticeps 0.008 0.010

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O. opaciventris

Pachycondyla apicalis 0.017 0.007

P. constricta 0.006

P. harpax 0.0125 0.031 0.013

P. obscuricornis 0.003 0.006

P. villosa

Paraponera clavata 0.019

Brachymyrmexsp. 1

Brachymyrmexsp. 2

Campanotussp. 1

Paratrechinasp. 1 0.033 0.063

Paratrechinasp. 2

Tapinoma

melanocephalum

total # of species per site: 37 36 16 14

(back to top of table)

To calculate Shannon'sHfor the primary forest site we can use the equation given above:H= (-1) * (0.117

* ln 0.117) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.021 * ln 0.021) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.021 * ln 0.021) +(0.008 * ln

0.008) +(0.058 * ln 0.058) +(0.054 * ln 0.054) +(0.021 * ln 0.021) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln

0.004) +(0.163 * ln 0.163) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.067 * ln 0.067) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.017 * ln

0.017) +(0.125 * ln 0.125) +(0.079 * ln 0.079) +(0.050 * ln 0.050) +(0.075 * ln 0.075) +(0.004 * ln

0.004) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.017 * ln 0.017) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln

0.004) +(0.050 * ln 0.050) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln 0.004) +(0.004 * ln

0.004) +(0.021 * ln 0.021) +(0.017 * ln 0.017) +(0.008 * ln 0.008) +(0.017 * ln 0.017) +(0.0125 * ln

0.0125) +(0.033 * ln 0.033) = 3.1823. Evenness is thenEH= 3.1823 / ln 37 = 0.8813(37 being S, the total

number of species at this site). Using the same equations, Shannon's Hfor the banana plantation is 0.8322,

andEH= 0.3153.

Interpretation:We can see from our results that the diversity and evenness in this site from the undisturbed

habitat (primary rain forest) are much higher than in the site from the highly disturbed habitat (banana

plantation). The primary rain forest not only has a greater number of species present, but the individuals in

the community are distributed more equitably among these species. In the banana plantation there are 23

fewer species and over 80% of the individuals belong to one species, Solenopsis geminata (the most
http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/shannonDI.html#(skip%20table%20for%20now)http://www.tiem.utk.edu/~gross/bioed/bealsmodules/shannonDI.html#(skip%20table%20for%20now)

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common species in the primary rain forest, on the other hand, makes up about 16% of the community

[Pheidolesp. 15]).

Conclusions:Different levels of disturbance have different effects on ant diversity. If our goal is to preserve

biodiversity in a given area, we need to be able to understand how diversity is impacted by different

management strategies. Because diversity indices provide more information than simply the number of

species present (i.e., they account for some species being rare and others being common), they serve as

valuable tools that enable biologists to quantify diversity in a community and describe its numerical

structure.

Additional Questions:

1. CalculateHandEHfor both the abandoned and productive cacao plantation sites. Are they more similar to

one another or to the more or less disturbed habitats?

2. What do you notice about the species compositions of these four habitats (i.e., do most species occur in all

four habitats, in only one habitat, etc.)?

Extra credit: Calculate Simpson'sDandEDfor the primary forest and abandoned cacao plantation sites. Do

these values lead to the same conclusions drawn from your calculations of Shannon's indices?

Sources: Begon, M., J. L. Harper, and C. R. Townsend. 1996. Ecology: Individuals, Populations, and

Communities, 3rd edition. Blackwell Science Ltd., Cambridge, MA.

Magurran, A. E. 1988. Ecological Diversity and its Measurement. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

Rosenzweig, M. L. 1995. Species Diversity in Space and Time. Cambridge University Press, New York,

NY.Roth, D. S., I. Perfecto, and B. Rathcke. 1994. The effects of management systems on ground-foraging ant

diversity in Costa Rica. Ecological Applications 4(3):423-436.

Simso#s Diversit I#de9
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Simpson's Diversity Index is a measure of diversity. In ecology, it is often used to quantify the biodiversity of a habitat. It

takes into account the number of species present, as well as the abundance of each species.

he Index of Diversity which !S"!# level students in the $% need to understand can be found here.

&efore looking at Simpson's Diversity Index in more detail, it is important to understand the basic

concepts outlined below.

Biological Diversity - the great variety of life

&iological diversity can be quantified in many different ways. he two main factors taken into accountwhen measuring diversity are richness and evenness. ichness is a measure of the number of

different kinds of organisms present in a particular area. (or example, species richness is the

number of different species present. )owever, diversity depends not only on richness, but also on

evenness. *venness compares the similarity of the population si+e of each of the species present.

1.Richness

he number of species per sample is a measure of richness. he more species present in a sample,

the 'richer' the sample.

Species richness as a measure on its own takes no account of the number of individuals of each

species present. It gives as much weight to those species which have very few individuals as to

those which have many individuals. hus, one daisy has as much influence on the richness of an

area as --- buttercups.

2.Evenness

*venness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the richness of

an area.

o give an example, we might have sampled two different fields for wildflowers. he sample from thefirst field consists of -- daisies, / dandelions and 0/ buttercups. he sample from the second

field comprises #- daisies, 12 dandelions and 2 buttercups 3see the table below4. &oth samples

have the same richness 3 species4 and the same total number of individuals 3---4. )owever, the
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first sample has more evenness than the second. his is because the total number of individuals in

the sample is quite evenly distributed between the three species. In the second sample, most of the

individuals are buttercups, with only a few daisies and dandelions present. Sample # is therefore

considered to be less diverse than sample .

Numbers of individuals

Flower !ecies am!le 1 am!le 2

Daisy "## 2#

Dandelion ""$ %&

Buttercu! "'$ &"1

(otal 1### 1###

A community dominated by one or two species is considered to be less diverse than one

in which several different species have a similar abundance.

!s species richness and evenness increase, so diversity increases. Simpson's Diversity Index is a

measure of diversity which takes into account both richness and evenness.

im!son)s Diversity *ndices

he term 'Simpson's Diversity Index' can actually refer to any one of closely related indices.

im!son)s *nde+3D4 measures the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample

will belong to the same species 3or some category other than species4. here are two versions of the

formula for calculatingD. *ither is acceptable, but be consistent.

D , n N/2

n , the total number of organisms of a !articular s!ecies

N , the total number of organisms of all s!ecies

he value of Dranges between - and

5ith this index, - represents infinite diversity and , no diversity. hat is, the bigger the value of D,

the lower the diversity. his is neither intuitive nor logical, so to get over this problem, D is often

subtracted from to give6

im!son)s *nde+ of Diversity 7 D

he value of this index also ranges between - and , but now, the greater the value, the greater the

sample diversity. his makes more sense. In this case, the index represents the probability that two

individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to different species.

!nother way of overcoming the problem of the counter7intuitive nature of Simpson's Index is to takethe reciprocal of the Index6

im!son)s Reci!rocal *nde+ " D

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he value of this index starts with as the lowest possible figure. his figure would represent a

community containing only one species. he higher the value, the greater the diversity. he

maximum value is the number of species 3or other category being used4 in the sample. (or example

if there are five species in the sample, then the maximum value is /.

he name 'Simpson's Diversity Index' is often very loosely applied and all three related indices described above

3Simpson's Index, Simpson's Index of Diversity and Simpson's eciprocal Index4 have been quoted under this blanket

term, depending on author. *t is therefore im!ortant to ascertain which inde+ has actually been used in anycom!arative studies of diversity.

o calculate Simpson's Index for a particular area, the area must first be

sampled. he number of individuals of each species present in the

samples must be noted. 3his can be easier said than done8 more here4

(or example, the diversity of the ground flora in a woodland, might be

tested by sampling random quadrats. he number of plant species within

each quadrat, as well as the number of individuals of each species is

noted. here is no necessity to be able to identify all the species,

provided they can be distinguished from each other.

!s an example, let us work out the value ofDfor a single quadrat sample of ground vegetation in a

woodland. 9f course, sampling only one quadrat would not give you a reliable estimate of thediversity of the ground flora in the wood. Several samples would have to be taken and the data

pooled to give a better estimate of overall diversity. 0ow many sam!les

!ecies Number n/ nn-1/

5oodrush # #

)olly 3seedlings4 : /0

&ramble -

;orkshire (og -

Sedge 0

otal 3N4 1$ '%

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D , #." 3Simpson's Index4

hen6

Simpson's Index of Diversity 7 D = -.>

Simpson's eciprocal Index " D = .

hese different values all represent the same biodiversity. It is therefore important to ascertain

which index has actually been used in any comparative studies of diversity. ! value of Simpson's

Index of -.>, is not the same as a value of -.> for Simpson's Index of Diversity.

Simpson's Index gives more weight to the more abundant species in a sample. he addition of rare

species to a sample causes only small changes in the value of D.

DIVERSITYINDEXFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A diversit i#de9is a Ouantitative measure t6at re2*e)ts 6o manL di22erent tLpes =su)6 as spe)ies> t6ere arein a dataset: and simu*taneous*L taMes into a))ount 6o even*L t6e 7asi) entities =su)6 as individua*s> aredistri7uted amon+ t6ose tLpes. T6e va*ue o2 a diversitL inde4 in)reases 7ot6 6en t6e num7er o2 tLpesin)reases and 6en evenness in)reases. (or a +iven num7er o2 tLpes: t6e va*ue o2 a diversitL inde4 is

ma4imi5ed 6en a** tLpes are eOua**L a7undant.

P6en diversitL indi)es are used in e)o*o+L: t6e tLpes o2 interest are usua**L spe)ies: 7ut t6eL )an a*so 7e ot6er)ate+ories: su)6 as +enera: 2ami*ies: 2un)tiona* tLpes or 6ap*otLpes. T6e entities o2 interest are usua**Lindividua* p*ants or anima*s: and t6e measure o2 a7undan)e )an 7e: 2or e4amp*e: num7er o2 individua*s:

7iomass or )overa+e. In demo+rap6L: t6e entities o2 interest )an 7e peop*e: and t6e tLpes o2 interest variousdemo+rap6i) +roups. In in2ormation s)ien)e: t6e entities )an 7e )6ara)ters and t6e tLpes t6e di22erent *etterso2 t6e a*p6a7et. T6e most )ommon*L used diversitL indi)es are simp*e trans2ormations o2 t6e e22e)tive num7ero2 tLpes =a*so Mnon as Qtrue diversitLQ>: 7ut ea)6 diversitL inde4 )an a*so 7e interpreted in its on ri+6t as ameasure )orrespondin+ to some rea* p6enomenon =7ut a di22erent one 2or ea)6 diversitL inde4>. 1',-

CNTENTS

! Tr"e di#er$ity
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_evennesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_evennesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_functional_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010c-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#True_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_evennesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_functional_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010c-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#True_diversity

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% Richne$$

& Shannon' Wea#er inde(

o &)! R*nyi entropy

+ Simp$on inde(

o +)! In#er$e Simp$on inde(

o +)% ini-Simp$on inde(

. /er0er-1arker inde(

2 See al$o

3 Reference$

4 F"rther readin0

5 E(ternal link$

TR6EDIVERSITY

True diversitL: or t6e e22e)tive num7er o2 tLpes: re2ers to t6e num7er o2 eOua**L a7undant tLpes needed 2or t6eavera+e proportiona* a7undan)e o2 t6e tLpes to eOua* t6at o7served in t6e dataset o2 interest =6ere a** tLpesmaL not 7e eOua**L a7undant>. T6e true diversitL in a dataset is )a*)u*ated 7L 2irst taMin+ t6e ei+6ted+enera*i5ed meano2 t6e proportiona* a7undan)es o2 t6e tLpes in t6e dataset: and t6en taMin+ t6e inverseo2t6is. T6e eOuation isB,-

T6e denominatoreOua*s avera+e proportiona* a7undan)e o2 t6e tLpes in t6e dataset as )a*)u*ated it6 t6eei+6ted +enera*i5ed meanit6 e4ponent q 1. In t6e eOuation:Ris ri)6ness =t6e tota* num7er o2 tLpes int6e dataset>: and t6e proportiona* a7undan)e o2 t6e it6 tLpe is . T6e proportiona* a7undan)es t6emse*vesare used as t6e nomina* ei+6ts. P6en q< 1: t6e a7ove eOuation is unde2ined: so t6e )orrespondin+ mean is)a*)u*ated it6 t6e 2o**oin+ eOuation insteadB

T6e va*ue o2 qis o2ten re2erred to as t6e order o2 t6e diversitL. It de2ines t6e sensitivitL o2 t6e diversitL va*ueto rare vs. a7undant spe)ies 7L modi2Lin+ 6o t6e mean o2 t6e spe)ies proportiona* a7undan)es is )a*)u*ated.Pit6 some va*ues o2 t6e parameter q: t6e +enera*i5ed mean it6 e4ponent q 1 +ives 2ami*iar Minds o2 meanas spe)ia* )ases. In parti)u*ar: q< 8 )orresponds to t6e 6armoni) mean: q< 1 to t6e +eometri) meanand q: de)ima* di+its=de)its> and natura* di+its =nats> 2or t6e 7ases ': 18 and e: respe)tive*L. $omparin+ S6annon entropL va*uest6at ere ori+ina**L )a*)u*ated it6 di22erent *o+ 7ases reOuires )onvertin+ t6em to t6e same *o+ 7aseB )6an+e2rom t6e 7ase ato 7ase bis o7tained it6 mu*tip*i)ation 7L *o+ba.

It 6as 7een s6on t6at t6e S6annon inde4 is 7ased on t6e ei+6ted +eometri) mean o2 t6e proportiona*

a7undan)es o2 t6e tLpes: and t6at it eOua*s t6e *o+arit6m o2 true diversitL as )a*)u*ated it6 q< 1B,

T6is )an a*so 7e ritten

6i)6 eOua*s

Sin)e t6e sum o2 t6e va*ues eOua*s unitL 7L de2inition: t6e denominator eOua*s t6e ei+6ted +eometri)mean o2 t6e va*ues: it6 t6e va*ues t6emse*ves 7ein+ used as t6e ei+6ts =e4ponents in t6e eOuation>.T6e term it6in t6e parent6eses 6en)e eOua*s true diversitL 1D: andH'eOua*s *n=1D>.1,-

P6en a** tLpes in t6e dataset o2 interest are eOua**L )ommon: a** va*ues eOua* 1R: and t6e S6annon inde46en)e taMes t6e va*ue *n=R>. T6e more uneOua* t6e a7undan)es o2 t6e tLpes: t6e *ar+er t6e ei+6ted +eometri)mean o2 t6e va*ues: and t6e sma**er t6e )orrespondin+ S6annon entropL. I2 pra)ti)a**L a** a7undan)e is)on)entrated to one tLpe: and t6e ot6er tLpes are verL rare =even i2 t6ere are manL o2 t6em>: S6annon entropLapproa)6es 5ero. P6en t6ere is on*L one tLpe in t6e dataset: S6annon entropL e4a)t*L eOua*s 5ero =t6ere is noun)ertaintL in predi)tin+ t6e tLpe o2 t6e ne4t random*L )6osen entitL>.

R;NYIENTR1Y

T6e RWnLi entropL is a +enera*i5ation o2 t6e S6annon entropL to ot6er va*ues o2 q t6an unitL. It )an 7ee4pressedB

6i)6 eOua*s

T6is means t6at taMin+ t6e *o+arit6m o2 true diversitL 7ased on anL va*ue o2 q +ives t6e RWnLi entropL)orrespondin+ to t6e same va*ue o2 q.

SI81SNINDEX

T6e Simpson inde4 as introdu)ed in 1H-H 7L Edard ?. Simpsonto measure t6e de+ree o2 )on)entration6en individua*s are )*assi2ied into tLpes. /T6e same inde4 as redis)overed 7L "rris $. ?er2inda6* in 1H8.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Shannon1948-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Shannon1948-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010c-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9nyi_entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9nyi_entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_H._Simpsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Shannon1948-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010a-3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Tuomisto2010c-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9nyi_entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_H._Simpsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6

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T6e sOuare root o2 t6e inde4 6ad a*readL 7een introdu)ed in 1H- 7L t6e e)onomist A*7ert ". ?irs)6man.9

As a resu*t: t6e same measure is usua**L Mnon as t6e Simpson inde4 in e)o*o+L: and as t6e ?er2inda6* inde4or t6e ?er2inda6*G?irs)6man inde4 =??I> in e)onomi)s.

T6e measure eOua*s t6e pro7a7i*itL t6at to entities taMen at random 2rom t6e dataset o2 interest represent t6esame tLpe./It eOua*sB

T6is a*so eOua*s t6e ei+6ted arit6meti) mean o2 t6e proportiona* a7undan)es o2 t6e tLpes o2 interest: it6t6e proportiona* a7undan)es t6emse*ves 7ein+ used as t6e ei+6ts. 1 0roportiona* a7undan)es are 7Lde2inition )onstrained to va*ues 7eteen 5ero and unitL: 7ut t6eir ei+6ted arit6meti) mean: and 6en)e

: 6i)6 is rea)6ed 6en a** tLpes are eOua**L a7undant.

&L )omparin+ t6e eOuation used to )a*)u*ate X it6 t6e eOuations used to )a*)u*ate true diversitL: it )an 7eseen t6at 1X eOua*s 'D: i.e. true diversitL as )a*)u*ated it6 q< '. T6e ori+ina* SimpsonQs inde4 6en)e eOua*s

t6e )orrespondin+ 7asi) sum.'

T6e interpretation o2 X as t6e pro7a7i*itL t6at to entities taMen at random 2rom t6e dataset o2 interestrepresent t6e same tLpe assumes t6at t6e 2irst entitL is rep*a)ed to t6e dataset 7e2ore taMin+ t6e se)ond entitL.I2 t6e dataset is verL *ar+e: samp*in+ it6out rep*a)ement +ives appro4imate*L t6e same resu*t: 7ut in sma**datasets t6e di22eren)e )an 7e su7stantia*. I2 t6e dataset is sma**: and samp*in+ it6out rep*a)ement isassumed: t6e pro7a7i*itL o2 o7tainin+ t6e same tLpe it6 7ot6 random dras isB

6ere is t6e num7er o2 entities 7e*on+in+ to t6e it6 tLpe andNis t6e tota* num7er o2 entities in t6e dataset./T6is 2orm o2 t6e Simpson inde4 is a*so Mnon as t6e ?unterG!aston inde4 in mi)ro7io*o+L.H

Sin)e mean proportiona* a7undan)e o2 t6e tLpes in)reases it6 de)reasin+ num7er o2 tLpes and in)reasin+a7undan)e o2 t6e most a7undant tLpe: X o7tains sma** va*ues in datasets o2 6i+6 diversitL and *ar+e va*ues indatasets o2 *o diversitL. T6is is )ounterintuitive 7e6avior 2or a diversitL inde4: so o2ten su)6 trans2ormationso2 X t6at in)rease it6 in)reasin+ diversitL 6ave 7een used instead. T6e most popu*ar o2 su)6 indi)es 6ave

7een t6e inverse Simpson inde4 =1X> and t6e !iniGSimpson inde4 =1 X>.1'&ot6 o2 t6ese 6ave a*so 7een)a**ed t6e Simpson inde4 in t6e e)o*o+i)a* *iterature: so )are is needed to avoid a))identa**L )omparin+ t6e

di22erent indi)es as i2 t6eL ere t6e same.INVERSESI81SNINDEX

T6e inverse Simpson inde4 eOua*sB

T6is simp*L eOua*s true diversitL o2 order ': i.e. t6e e22e)tive num7er o2 tLpes t6at is o7tained 6en t6eei+6ted arit6meti) mean is used to Ouanti2L avera+e proportiona* a7undan)e o2 tLpes in t6e dataset o2

interest.INI-SI81SNINDEX

T6e ori+ina* Simpson inde4 X eOua*s t6e pro7a7i*itL t6at to entities taMen at random 2rom t6e dataset o2interest =it6 rep*a)ement> represent t6e same tLpe. Its trans2ormation 1 X t6ere2ore eOua*s t6e pro7a7i*itL
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_O._Hirschmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herfindahl_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hunter1988-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_O._Hirschmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herfindahl_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Simpson1949-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hunter1988-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Hill1973-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diversity_index&redirect=no#cite_note-Jost2006-2

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t6at t6e to entities represent di22erent tLpes. T6is measure is a*so Mnon in e)o*o+L as t6e pro7a7i*itL o2interspe)i2i) en)ounter =PIE>18and t6e !iniGSimpson inde4.'It )an 7e e4pressed as a trans2ormation o2 truediversitL o2 order 'B

T6e !i77sG#artin inde4 o2 so)io*o+L: psL)6o*o+L and mana+ement studies:11 6i)6 is a*so Mnon as t6e&*au inde4: is t6e same measure as t6e !iniGSimpson inde4.

/ERER-1:R

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individua*s in t6e samp*e.

T6e re)ipro)a* o2 t6e inde4: 1d: is o2ten used: so t6at an in)rease in t6e va*ue o2 t6e inde4 a))ompanies anin)rease in diversitL and a redu)tion in dominan)e. Pe p*ot t6e dominan)e inde4 d.

A simp*e p*ot o2 t6e aL t6e inde4 )6an+es 7eteen samp*es is disp*aLed 7L )*i)Min+ on t6e !rap6 ta7 on t6eoutput indo.

To )ompare to indi)es see Testin+ 2or si+ni2i)ant di22eren)es 7eteen indi)es.

A=ALEF=IC?NESS8:R:=EFS1ECIESRIC7NESS)))8ar0alef@$ richne$$ inde(9 (S-1)/ln(n), Ahere S i$ the n"m?er of ta(a, and n i$ the n"m?er ofindi#id"al$)7i all, thi$ may $eem pretty $imple to yo" all, ?"t I admit that Ahen it come$ to n"m?er$ I $tr"00le)1lea$e correct me Ahere I Bmay ?e 0ettin0 thi$ Aron0 BS'!ln ( n G an$Aer 8y $tr"00lin0 point i$,

Ahat i$ @ln@ I can@t $eem to Hnd thi$ anyAhere Bi$ it $imply !'n)Thank$ for yo"r helpJ

8ar0alef@$ richne$$ inde(9 (S-1)/ln(n), Ahere S i$ the n"m?er of ta(a, and n i$ the

n"m?er of indi#id"al$)?i a**: t6is maL seem prettL simp*e to Lou a**: 7ut I admit t6at 6en it )omes to num7ers I stru++*e.0*ease )orre)t me 6ere I =maL> 7e +ettin+ t6is ron+B=SC1>*n 4 n < anser #L stru++*in+ point is: 6at isQ*nQ I )anQt seem to 2ind t6is anL6ere =is it simp*L 1CnY>.T6anMs 2or Lour 6e*pZ=?ead7an+>

e#8i#ic> I#de9

GBiodiversitatea agroecosistemelor

Caitol'l 1"

Biodiversitatea 2de*i#i ie4 sc'rt istoric4 imorta# a

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de =amo#d F" Dasma# 1K,.: re2erinduCse *a via a s*7ati) n )artea sa [ A Di**ere#t i#d o* Co'#tr[ .&8omas Love5on [Co#servatio# Biologuti*i5ea5 termenu* [ diversitatea natura*\bioloi$al %i(e&"ity1H98 pre*uat de )omunitatea 3tiin i2i). Biodiversitate a a 2ost su+erat prima dat )a termen de ;""=ose# 7# a#'l 1K.+: *a Nationa* Resear)6 $oun)i* deru*at n anu* 1H9/. Biodiversitate apare prima dat )a termen n *u)rarea Biological Diversit a entomo*o+u*ui E.".Pi*sonaprut n anu* 1H9/

&8omas Love5o E.". Pi*sonBiodiversitatea )a varietate a 2orme*or de via : de *a aspe)tu* mor2o*o+i) *a e)osisteme este o #o i'#e e9tremde comle9$ 3i di#amic$4 *ii#d determinat de intera) iuni*e 2orme*or de via pmntean deru*ate pe

par)ursu* unei perioade nde*un+ate = ],: mi*ioane de ani tere3trii>.&iodiversitatea este variat dup opinia maForit ii 7io*o+i*or: )uprin5nd urmtoare*e trei tipuri Ba> (iodiversitatea ta9o#omic$: diversitatea spe)ii*or = ta9o#omic diversit ] spe)ies diversitL *eve*>

7> (iodiversitatea ecologic$: diversitatea e)osisteme*or =ecological diversit ] o2 e)osLstem diversitL>)> (iodiversitatea mor*ologic$ =mor8ological diversit ] +eneti) diversitL>. ^n )ursu* anu*ui '88,

pro2esoru* en+*e5A#t8o# Cam(el *a $ardi22 UniversitL: U 3i )er)ettor *a [ Darin $entre\: din0em7roMes6ire: a introdus un nou tip de 7iodiversitate denumit [ (iodiversitatea molec'lar$"

A#t8o# Cam(el

1"! o#itoriarea (iodiversit$ ii 7# E 3i 7# =omJ#ia

o#itoriarea (iodiversit$ ii 7# E

A+ri)u*tura 3i pduri*e o)up apro4. H8J din supra2a a EU =2arm*and: 2orest *and )over H8 J o2 t6e EUQs *andsur2a)e>.
http://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/National_Research_Councilhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembrokeshirehttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/National_Research_Councilhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://academickids.com/encyclopedia/index.php/E.O._Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembrokeshire

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DIRE$TIVE '88918E$ "( T?E EUR"0EAN 0AR@IA#ENT AND "( T?E $"UN$I@ o2 1/ De)em7er '889

on environmenta* Oua*itL standards in t6e 2ie*d o2 ater po*i)L: amendin+ and su7seOuent*L repea*in+ $oun)i* Dire)tives9'1/EE$: 9,1,EE$: 9-1/EE$: 9--H1EE$: 9/'98EE$ and amendin+ Dire)tive '888/8E$ o2 t6eEuropean 0ar*iament and o2 t6e $oun)i*

&iodiversitatea n EU este monitori5at de T6e European BiodiversitL O7servation NetorM =EBONE> a2i*iat *a T6eroup on Eart6 O7servations BiodiversitL O7servation NetorM G EO BON G )oordonat de t6e So)ieta* Bene2itArea =SBA>: BiodiversitL o2 t6e *o7a* Eart6 O7servation SLstem o2 SLstems =EOSS>. !E" &"N G re)unos)ut det6e Convention on Bio*o+i)a* DiversitL: t6e !E" PorM 0*an in)*udin+ DIVERSITAS: !&I(: IU$N: NASA: UNE0CP$#$ and ot6ers.

ICN: Internationa* Union 2or $onservation o2 Nature: 6e*ps t6e or*d 2ind pra+mati) so*utions to our most pressin+environment and deve*opment )6a**en+es.

Lista ro3ie The IUCN Red ist of Threatened !pecies. "ersion #$%&.'2redlistMi'c#"org

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&8e roortio# o* e9ta#t 2i"e"4 e9cl'di#g E9ti#ct< secies i# The IUCN Red ist of Threatened !pecies. "ersion#$%&.'assessed i# eac8 categor *or t8e more comre8e#sivel assessed gro's" &a9a are ordered accordi#g tot8e vertical red li#es4 8ic8 s8o t8e (est estimate *or roortio# o* e9ta#t secies co#sidered t8reate#ed 2C=4EN4 or

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lo(sters 1 20:%+

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Eu#on stands 2or EUCide monitorin+ met6ods and sLstems o2 survei**an)e 2or spe)ies and 6a7itats o2$ommunitL interest.Eu#on 2o)used on 2our maFor aspe)ts important 2or 7iodiversitL monitorin+BCt6e invo*vement o2 vo*unteers. PN data7ase )ontains in2ormation vo*unteer 7iodiversitL monitorin+C)overa+e and )6ara)teris ti)s o2 monitorin+ s)6emesB onitorin+ and Assessment &oo*.data7ase =DaE'o#> on European 7iodiversitL monitorin+ s)6emes BioA& C t6e Eu#on inte+rated BiodiversitL

&io#AT_s modu*e 1 a**os e4tra)tion o2 t6is in2ormation and its presentation in ta7u*ar or +rap6i)a* 2orm.Cmonitorin+ met6ods: s)6emes provide t6e 7asis 2or modu*es ' and , o2 &io#AT.

Csettin+ monitorin+ and )onservation prioriies. :met8ods to develo a# e**icie#t #etor> o* rotected areasNA&=A !000 #etor> Cmo#itori#g s'ort tools/BioA& C t6e Eu#on inte+rated &iodiversitL #onitorin+ andAssessment Too*: DaEu#ont6e data7ase on European 7iodiversitL monitorin+ s)6emes t6e 0#Ndata7ase t6at)ontains in2ormation on or+anisations t6at )arrL out vo*unteer 7ased 7iodiversitL monitorin+. Eu#onC6ome.

ONI&O=ITA=EA BIODIE=SI&U II VN=OWNIA

^n Romnia B S'ra*a a agric'lt'rii : ,! S =O 2!%Q +00m!< pdure: ve+eta ie 2orestierC 'J. ape: *a)uri: *u)iu de ap: )i de )omuni)a ii: )onstru) ii C 11J Ara7i*C /,J supra2a a a+ri)o*

p3uni C',J )u*turi 2uraFere C18J vii 3i p*anta ii viti)o*eC 1:HJ C altit'di#ea mi#im$ 04+!mo are

us)atu* din Delta D'#$rii3i *un)i*e unor ruri : iar altit'di#ea ma9im$: vJr*'l oldovea#' !+-- m4 di# '# iiF$g$ra3. Floraare %"Q00seciide la#te: ',spe)ii sunt de)*arate monumente a*e naturii: - spe)ii e4tin)te: ,H spe)iin peri)o*: endan+ered : 11 spe)ii vu*nera7i*e:vu*nera7*e: 3i 1', spe)ii rare.

Fa'
http://eumon.ckff.si/monitoring/search.phphttp://eumon.ckff.si/biomat/http://eumon.ckff.si/biomat/http://eumon.ckff.si/index1.php

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#a C %%"QK! secii ide#ti*icate: ,,.89 neverte7rate 3i Q0Q verte(rate.

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Caitol'l !"

Biodiversitatea a#cestral$H

Biodiversitatea 7# ecosistemele a#troiate 3i a#troice"

!"1 Biodiversitatea a#cestral$"ro+ene5a peisaFu*ui +eo+ra2i) a )unos)ut perioade de trans2ormri pro2unde: sta7i*itate: avnd )au5e*e BC2*u)tuaia vite5ei de rotaie a 0mntu*ui

C)omprimri a*e s)oarei terestre

C*aten sau erupie vu*)ani)

Cde2ormri*e manta*ei de ro)i de supra2a pe verti)a*

Cmodi2i)ri*e raportu*ui dintre +a5e =o4i+en: dio4id de )ar7on: a*te*e..>

Cs)6im7ri radi)a*e a*e 2*orei 3i 2aunei terestre

#odi2i)ri*e severe: a7ateri*e de *a e)6i*i7ru 3i de amenaFare antropi) a Terrei )oin)id )u )i)*i)itatea anu*ui +a*a)ti)=198C'88 mi*ioane de ani>.

Re)on2i+urarea )ontinente*or 3i 2*u)tuaia ener+ii*or de re*ie2 au 2ost determinate de B

Cpre)esia e)6ino4uri*or adi) de)a*area anotimpuri*or = *a ''C/8mii ani >

Cmodi2i)area periodi) a un+6iu*ui de n)*inaie a a4ei de rotaie a Terrei = *a -8C-' mii ani >

Cmodi2i)area e4)entri)itii or7itei terestre = *a H' mii ani>.

Natura*istu*: +eo+ra2u* prusa)Ale9a#der vo# ?'m(oldt se). I` introdu)e termenu* [ eisa5\: rea*i5nd prima)*asi2i)are dup omo+enitatea aso)iaii*or ve+eta*e: 2undamentnd (iogeogra*ia.

)oa*a 2ran)e5 a adoptat termenu* [ paLsa+e\: )ea an+*oCsa4on C [ *ands)ape\: iar )ea ameri)an G [*ands)apee)o*o+L\ de2inind un mode* de or+ani5are natura* a )omponente*or n sens 2i5i): 7io*o+i): so)ia*.

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0eisaFu* terestru a par)urs urmtoare*e tipuri de peisaF =dup A*. Ro3u: 1H9>B

CpeisaFu* primitiv timpuriu =)u ,8 mi*ioane ani I$6. : pa*eo5oi)u* in2erior: )am7rian: ordovi)ian : si*urian: devonian >

CpeisaFu* primitiv tr5iu = ,88G ,8 mi*ioane ani I$6.: n perioada )ar7oni2er>

Cpa*eopeisaFu* ,88 G 1 mi*ioane ani I$6 din permianCpa*eo5oi) pn n Furasi)Cme5o5oi)>

CneopeisaFu* =1 C/ mi*ioane ani I$6.: perioada )reta)i)Gme5o5oi)>

CpeisaFu* 5ona* =/C1'mi*ioane I$6.: n pa*eo+en 3i neo+enG)aino5oi)>

CpeisaFu* +eo+ra2i) prea)tua* =1'C18.888 mi*ioane I$6.: n neo+en >

C peisaFu* +eo+ra2i) a)tua* sau te6no+en: din post+*a)ia*.

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(*ora a aFuns *a 2orma K de2initiv K n )uaternar\: iar peisaFu* +eo+ra2i) a)tua* sCa )onstituit n 6o*o)enGneo5oi).!*a)iaiunea n)6eiat )u 18mii ani I$6. a remode*at mediu* +eo+ra2i): iar n2i3area 0mntu*ui sCa s)6im7at severse*e)tnd spe)ii*e ve+eta*e 3i anima*e: )are au popu*at 7iotipuri*e neo)upate de spe)ii*e pre+*a)ia*e.

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Europa =dup Stra7on : Ta)itus > a avut teritoriu* mpdurit =J >: iar stepe*e se situau *a nord de #area Nea+r 3in 5ona #rii $aspi)e.

$mpii*e Dunrii de os 3i &r+anu* au 2ost a)operite de pduri rare = En)u*es)u: 1H'->.

!"! Biodiversitatea 7# ecosistemele a#troiate 3i a#troice

Diversitatea peisaFe*or *a supra2aa terestr este determinat de distri7uirea ine+a* a e*emente*or a7ioti)e 3i 7ioti)e.Dup 2re)vena omu*ui 3i a e*emente*e antropi)e n e)osisteme se distin+B Ce)osisteme natura*e Ce)osisteme modi2i)ate=antropi5ate> Ce)osisteme amenaFate =antropi)e>.

&iomuri*e terestre suntB tundra : tai+aua: munte*e : pduri*e: stepe*e savane*e : de3erturi*e : mediu* marin 3i7iomuri*e *imno*o+i)e =ape )ur+toare: *a)uri*e >.

&'#dra este situat n emis2era nordi) 3i sudi): pn *a )er)u* po*ar )*imaCn+6e : temperatura *unar medie a)e*ei mai )a*de *uni rar dep3e3te 18o$: vara so*u* se de5+6ea super2i)ia* timp de /C9 sptmni: pn *a adn)imeama4im de ,)m: restu* pro2i*u*ui rmne n+6eat =perma2rost> (*oraB mu3)6i: *i)6eni: p*ante anua*e e2emere )u 2*ori:)e )res) 3i se reprodu) n s)urta var po*ar (auna B psrii ] -8 spe)ii mi+ratoare 3i sedentare =pin+uini: ra po*ar:

7u2ni po*ar ..> inse)te =diptere: )o**em7o*e: a*7ine> #amma*ia C /8 spe)ii G er7ivore mi)i =iepuri po*ari: *emin+i>:)arnivore =vu*pea po*ar: *upi a*7i: ursu* po*ar..>.

&aiga'aGsituat *a sud de tundr: n nordu* Eurasiei: Ameri)ii de Nord: )onstituit din pduri de )oni2ere )u 2run5epersistente =5ad: 7ra5i: pini: *ari4>: )ara)teristi) 5onei re)i: dar 3i sensi7i*e =p*opi>. Anima*eBpsri +ranivore:

inse)tivore: vu*tur: 3oim: 3ore)ar: 3oare)i: por) spinos: iepuri de vi5uin: iepuri de )mp: e*an: )prioare>: )arnivore=nevstui)a: nur)a: di6or: *in4: *up: urs>.

P$d'rile sunt aso)iaiii ve+eta*e diverse: )omp*e4e: strati2i)ate. 0duri*e pot 2i B Cpduri )u 2run5e )5toare=)adu)e> din )*ima temperat =Eurasia: Ameri)a de Nord> Cpduri )u 2run5e persistente de tip mediteranean =7a5inu*mediteranean : )arai7ian ..> Cpduri e)uatoria*e =Indone5ia: #a*ae5ia: A2ri)a tropi)a*: Ameri)a de Sud>. Diversitatea2aunisti) 3i 2*oristi) este mare =]'888 spe)ii *emnoase distri7uite pe -CetaFe produ)tivitatea 7rut a ar7ori*ore)uatoria*i este mare 88C1888 tan =)re3terea anua* a *emnu*ui 1CJ>.

'#tele este un 7iom 2ormat din e)osisteme diverse distri7uite pe etaFe B Cve+etaia 2orestier ' 888m Csu7a*pin ] , 888 m G- 888 mCa*pin peste - 888 m predomin +raminee*e: neverte7rate Ginse)te aptere: repti*eCverte7rate>.

P$3'#ileGrerii= SUA >: sava#e=A2ri)a tropi)a*>: amas=Ameri)a de Sud >: stea=Europa>. Steelesuntsituate n )*imate )u perioade *un+i de se)et ve+etaia este 2ormat din +ramineeB Stipa # )e"t*$a # A!%&opoo!+(itomasa 6ipo+ei) =su7teran> este mai mare de)t 2itomasa epi+ei) =suprateran>. Diversitatea mare mistre: 7our:5im7ru: mu2*on: ro5toare mi)i =3oare)i de )mp : popndii: 6r)io+i> psri =dropia: )io)r*ia: +aia..>:)arnivore= nevstui)a: pisi)a s*7ati): vu*pea: 3a)a*u*..> Sava#eleau )ovoru* ve+eta* 2ormat din +raminee : )u )re3tere

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rapid n perioada se5onu*ui p*oios: avnd o 7ioprodu)tivitate primar de '8 t 6a pe )ovoru* ve+eta* ier7os seinsta*ea5 spe)ii ar7ustoide (auna este 2ormat din er7ivore 2oarte mari =+ira2e: e*e2ani: 7ivo*i> miF*o)ii =5e7re:impa*a: +nu>: psri: mami2ere*e )arnivore mari =*eu: +6epard>. Preeriilesunt e)osisteme er7a)ee nord ameri)ane: )uaspe)t de step: n )are spe)ii*e ve+eta*e dominante sunt +raminee*e er7ivore =7i5oni>: )arnivore =*upii:)oioi>. Pamas

Ge)osistem sudGameri)an er7a)eu )u +raminee dominante: anima*e er7ivore =*ama: a*pa)a>: psri: repti*e.

De3ert'ri:2o#e aride 3ineverte7rate =inse)te: s)orpioni>.

edi'l mari#=ap srat > este divi5at nB Cp*atou )ontinenta* C5ona a7isa* =?]5e)i: / 888 m> C5ona 6ada* / 888m.

Biom'rile lim#ologice=ape du*)i )ur+toare: *a)uri > pot 2iB C *itora*e Csu7*itora*e C5ona pro2und.

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Tip 7iom a*pin

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Tip 7iomB sava#a

Tip 7iomB de3ert

Tip 7iomB stea4a5i3te 2grasla#d>

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Tip 7iomB $d'rea troical$

Tip 7iomB $d'rea de *oioase di# o#a temerat$

Tip 7iomB taiga

Tip 7iomB t'#dra

Tip 7iomB reeriee 2grasla#d

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Tip 7iom )6aparra*

01" ForXts de *e'ill's 8'mides troicales et s'(troicales 0!" ForXts de *e'ill's sYc8es troicales ets'(troicales 0%" ForXts de co#i*Yres troicales et s'(troicales 0-" ForXts de *e'ill's et *orXts mi9testemres 0+" ForXts de co#i*Yres temres 0," &aZga 0Q" Prairies4 sava#es et (ro'sses troicales ets'(troicales 0." Prairies4 sava#es et (ro'sses temres 0K" Prairies et sava#es i#o#des 10" Prairies et(ro'sses daltit'de 11" &o'#dra 1!" ForXts4 o#es (oises et ma'is mditerra#e#s 1%" Dserts et(ro'sses 9ri'es 1-" a#groves =oc8e et glace4 o' To#es terrestres a(ioti'es

PamasMagr!"e

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Primar Prod'ctivit &a(le

$u*tivated @and: 6i)6 6as +enera**L 7een 2orest or ta** +rass*and 7e2ore its )u*tivation: no )overs HJ o2 t6e eart6Qs*and sur2a)e. It produ)es 1-J o2 t6e *andQs 7iomass. A+ri)u*ture t6at supports 6umans reOuires at *east '8 in)6es o2

rain2a** a Lear: a*t6ou+6 sometimes: 6en rain2a** is insu22i)ient: t6e natura* rain2a** maL 7e supp*imented it6irri+ation.

Ecosstem &e

Net PrimarProd'ctivit

2ilocalories 6s'are meter 6ear /Y:R8ENT:

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S"UT?#"R"$$AN&I"0R"VIN$ES"UT?PESTERN #EDITERRANEAN&I"0R"VIN$ES"UT?#EDITERRANEAN&I"0R"VIN$EI&ERIAN&I"0R"VIN$E&A@EARI$&I"0R"VIN$E@I!UR"CTcRR?ENIAN&I"0R"VIN$EADRIATI$&I"0R"VIN$EEAST#EDITERRANEAN&I"0R"VIN$E$RI#EANCN"V"R"SSIcS&I"0R"VIN$ESA?AR"CARA&IAN&I"RE!I"NSA?ARAN&I"0R"VIN$EE!c0TIANCARA&IAN&I"0R"VIN$EIRAN"CTURANIAN&I"RE!I"N#ES"0"TA#IAN&I"0R"VIN$E$ENTRA@ANAT"@IAN&I"0R"VIN$EAR#EN"CIRANIAN&I"0R"VIN$E?cR$ANIAN&I"0R"VIN$ETURANIAN"RARA@"C$AS0IAN&I"0R"VIN$E

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bA#&EbIAN&I"0R"VIN$ESA?E@IAN&I"0R"VIN$ESUDANIAN&I"0R"VIN$ES"#A@"CET?I"0IAN&I"0R"VIN$ES"UT?ARA&IAN&I"0R"VIN$ES"$"TRAN&I"0R"VIN$E"#ANIAN&I"0R"VIN$ES"UT?IRANIAN&I"0R"VIN$ESINDIAN&I"0R"VIN$EAR""CNA#I&&I"RE!I"N

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