ANALELE TIIN IFICE ALE EXANDRU IOAN DIN IA I (SERIE NOUĂ) · 2016-01-20 · Reader Dr. Mircea-Dan...

ANALELE ȘTIINȚIFICE

ALE

UNIVERSITĂȚII „ALEXANDRU IOAN CUZA”

DIN IAȘI

(SERIE NOUĂ)

S E C Ț I U N E A I

BIOLOGIE ANIMALĂ

TOMUL LXI 2015

Editura Universității „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” din Iași

EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-Chief:

Prof. Dr. Gheorghe Mustață, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Executive Editor:

Reader Dr. Luminița Bejenaru, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Co-editors:

Prof. Dr. Lotus Meșter, University of Bucharest, Romania

Prof. Dr. Ion Moglan, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania Prof. Dr. Mircea Nicoară, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Prof. Dr. Antonio Palanca-Soler, University of Vigo, Spain

Prof. Dr. Costică Misăilă, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wietske Prummel, Royal University of Groningen, the Netherlands

Reader Dr. Ion Cojocaru, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Subject Editors:

Reader Dr. Ștefan Zamfirescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Lecturer Dr. Simina Stanc-Rafailă, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Reader Dr. Mircea-Dan Mitroiu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Scientific Board:

Prof. Dr. Patrick Gillet, Western Catholic University of Angers, France

Prof. Dr. Vladimir Pešić, Universtity of Montenegro, Potgorica, Montenegro

Prof. Dr. Ion Dediu, Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chișinau, Republic of Moldavia

Prof. Dr. Iordache Ion, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Prof. Dr. Mircea Varvara, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Prof. Dr. Ion Andriescu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Prof. Dr. Ionel Miron, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

C.P.I. Dr. Dumitru Murariu, Grigore Antipa National Museum of Natural History,

Bucharest, Romania

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Christine Lefevre, National Museum of Natural History, Paris, France

Reader Dr. Carmen Gache, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania Reader Dr. Ioan Coroiu, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Lecturer Dr. Anca-Narcisa Neagu, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Romania

Dr. Hab. Zbigniew Bocheński, Institute of Systematics and Evolution of Animals, Polish

Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland

Dr. Erika Gál, Archaeological Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest,

Hungary

Editorial address:

Facultatea de Biologie

Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” din Iași

Bd. Carol I, Nr. 20A, 700505 Iași, România

Telephone:

Fax:

+40232201527

+40232201472

http://www.bio.uaic.ro/publicatii/anale_zoologie/anale_zoo_index.html

http://www.bio.uaic.ro/publicatii/anale_zoologie/anale_zoo_index.html

Analele Științifice ale Universității „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” din Iași, s. Biologie animală, Tom LXI, 2015

- 3 -

CONTENTS

ARTICLES .....................................................................................................................5

Zeliha SELAMOGLU, Sevgi DURNA DASTAN, Mehmet Fuat GULHAN, Taner DASTAN & Mehmet Erman ERDEMLI – THE EFFECTS OF

ETHANOLIC POLLEN EXTRACT IN VARIOUS

CONCENTRATIONS ON TOTAL RNA AND TOTAL PROTEIN

LEVELS IN DIFFERENT TISSUES OF RAINBOW TROUT

(ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS) ...........................................................................5

Marius Andrei RĂU, Gabriel PLAVAN, Ștefan Adrian STRUNGARU, Mircea

NICOARĂ, Ioan MOGLAN & Dorel URECHE – FEEDING ECOLOGY

OF TWO SYMPATRIC FISH SPECIES IN A RIVER ECOSYSTEM ............. 11

Florina STĂNESCU, Elena BUHACIUC, Paul SZÉKELY, Diana SZÉKELY,

Laurențiu ROZYLOWICZ & Dan COGĂLNICEANU – THE IMPACT

OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES. STUDY CASE - IRON GATES I .................................................................... 19

Lucian Eugen BOLBOACĂ, Emanuel Ștefan BALTAG, Constantin ION &

Lucian FASOLĂ MĂTĂSARU – OYSTERCATCHER (HAEMATOPUS

OSTRALEGUS), STONE CURLEW (BURHINUS OEDICNEMUS) AND

LITTLE TERN (STERNULA ALBIFRONS) IN LOWER SIRET RIVER

COURSE, ROMANIA - BREEDING PROOFS ............................................... 25

Constantin COJAN, Larisa BOGDEA & Carmen GACHE – COLONIAL

BEHAVIOUR OF SOME CICONIIFOMERS SPECIES IN THE

LOWER PRUT RIVER BASIN (REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA) ....................... 33

Lucian Eugen BOLBOACĂ, Elena ARTEM & Vlad AMARGHIOALEI –

BREEDING DENSITIES OF TAWNY OWL (STRIX ALUCO) IN

EASTERN MOLDOVA REGION (ROMANIA) ............................................. 39

Elena ARTEM & Carmen GACHE – RARETIES BIRD SPECIES AND THE

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT IN WETLANDS FROM ISACCEA

AREA (ROMANIA)........................................................................................ 45

Vasilica-Monica GROZA, Angela SIMALCSIK & Luminița BEJENARU –

MEDIEVAL NECROPOLIS (14TH-15TH CENTURIES) OF PIATRA

NEAMȚ-DĂRMĂNEȘTI. ANTHROPOLOGICAL REPORT FOR 2012

CAMPAIGN ................................................................................................... 55

Contents

- 4 -

Maria COJAN – CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON A

PULMONARY TOXOCARIASIS CASE ........................................................ 89

Maria COJAN & Constantin COJAN – EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL

DIMENSIONS, DIAGNOSTIC AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

ON A TOXOCARIASIS CASE ASSOCIATED WITH

HYPERLEUKOCYTOSIS .............................................................................. 95

COMMUNICATIONS ................................................................................................ 101

Anca-Narcisa NEAGU & Ozana-Maria PETRARU – “AQUATIC” vs.

“TERRESTRIAL” EYE DESIGN. A FUNCTIONAL

ECOMORPHOLOGICAL APPROACH ........................................................ 101

Ștefan-Adrian STRUNGARU, Mircea NICOARĂ, Marius Andrei RĂU, Gabriel

PLĂVAN & Dragoș MICU – DO YOU LIKE TO EAT FISH? AN

OVERVIEW OF THE BENEFITS OF FISH CONSUMPTION AND

RISK OF MERCURY POISONING .............................................................. 117

Ion COJOCARU – DOGMATIC DENIAL OF THE SCIENCE OF EVOLUTION,

ASPECTS AND EFFECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL ................................ 125

OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS ...................................................................................... 137

Constantin TOMA – PROFESSOR IONEL MIRON ON HIS 80th

ANNIVERSARY .......................................................................................... 137


- 5 -

EFFECTS OF ETHANOLIC POLLEN EXTRACT IN VARIOUS

CONCENTRATIONS ON TOTAL RNA AND TOTAL PROTEIN

LEVELS IN DIFFERENT TISSUES OF RAINBOW TROUT

(ONCORHYNCHUS MYKİSS)

Zeliha SELAMOGLU1*, Sevgi DURNA DASTAN2 Mehmet Fuat GULHAN3, Taner

DASTAN4 and Mehmet Erman ERDEMLI5

1 Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Science, Nigde University, Nigde, Turkey

2 Department of Zootechnical and Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary, Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Turkey 3 Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Aksaray University,

Aksaray, Turkey 4 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Bingol University, Bingol, Turkey

5Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey

* Corespondent author: [email protected]

Abstract: In this study, the effects of ethanolic pollen extract in various concentrations (0.5, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 30

ppm) on total RNA and total protein levels in different tissues of rainbow trout have been investigated. Pollen

extract in various concentrations was administered to aquarium which habitat of fish for 96 h. Total RNA and total

protein levels were analyzed in muscle, gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Total RNA levels in gill, liver and heart tissues of various concentration groups (0.5, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 30 ppm)

increased (P<0.05) compared to control group. The highest value of total RNA (P<0.05) occured in spleen and

brain tissues of 20 and 30 ppm concentration groups. Total RNA level increased in muscle tissue of 30 ppm

concentration group compared to control group (P<0.05). The highest values of total protein levels have been

occured (P<0.05) in all tissues of 10 and 20 ppm groups compared with control group. Changes in total protein

levels in 0.5 ppm concentration groups of all tissues have not been determined compared to control group

(P>0.05). As a result, total RNA and total protein levels depend on concentrations of pollen in some tissues of

fish.

Keywords: pollen, total protein, total RNA, Rainbow trout

Rezumat. Efecte ale extractului etanolic de polen în concentratii variate asupra nivelurilor de ARN total și

proteină totală, în diferite țesuturi ale păstrăvului curcubeu (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In prezentul studiu au

fost investigate efecte ale extractului etanolic de polen în concentrații variate (0,5; 2,5; 5; 10; 20 și 30 ppm) asupra

nivelurilot de ARN total și proteină totală în diferite țesuturi ale păstrăvului curcubeu. Extract de polen, în diferite

concentrații, a fost administrat în acvariu, în care au stat pești timp de 96 ore. Nivelurile de ARN total și de

proteină totală au fost analizate din mușchi, branhii, ficat, splina, inima și encefal de păstrăv curcubeu

(Oncorhynchus mykiss). Nivelurile de ARN total din țesuturi branhiale, hepatice, splenice, cardiace și encefalice

provenite de la grupurilor tratate cu concentrații variate (0,5; 2,5; 5; 10; 20 și 30 ppm) au crescut (P<0,05) în

comparație cu grupul de control. Cea mai mare valoare a ARN-ului total s-a înregistrat în splina și encefalul

prelevate de la grupurilor tratate cu concentrații de 20 și 30 ppm. Nivelul de ARN total dn țesutul muscular

prelevat de la grupul tratat cu concentratie de 30 ppm a crescut în comparatie cu grupul de control (P<0.05). Cele

mai mari valori ale nivelurilot de de proteina totală au fost inregistrate în toate țesuturile grupurilor tratate cu 10 și

20 ppm, în comparație cu grupul de control. Nu au fost înregistrate modificări în nivelurile proteinei totale din

țesuturile prelevate de la grupul tratat cu concentrația de 0.5 ppm, in comparație cu grupul de control (P>0.05).

Prin urmare, nivelurile de ARN total și de proteină totală depind de concentrațiile de polen în unele țesuturi la

pești.

Cuvinte cheie: polen, proteina totala, ARN total, pastravul curcubeu

mailto:[email protected]

Zeliha Selamoglu et al.

- 6 -

Introduction

Most of investigations are releated to antioxidant capacities of different nutritional

products nowadays. The antioxidative properties of phenolic compounds of natural

products have been observed (Talas & Gulhan, 2009). Honeybee products, especially rich

in flavonoids, have been the focus of investigations. Among them, special attention should

be paid to the floral pollen used for many years as a beneficial dietary supplement (Leja et

al., 2007). Bee pollens are the male generative cells gathered by honeybees from flower

stamens. It provides nutrition through its remarkable quantity of proteins, sterols, fatty

acids, vitamins, carbon hydrates, lipids, vitamins, ashes, minerals, phenolic compounds and

flavonoids which are regarded as protective agent (Talas & Gulhan, 2013; Gulhan et al.,

2014). Fish are one of the most important aquatic organisms which can produce

significant sources of protein for human nutrition (Duran & Talas, 2009; Gulhan et al.,

2012). Fish are very sensitive against changes in their environment. Fish are commonly

used to estimate the influences of environmental compounds due to the sensitivity of their

biochemical parameters under of environmental conditions (Talas et al., 2014). As a result

of these changes may be affected the certain tissues and organs of fish, including muscle,

gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain.

Fish muscle has an important role in the human diet. Stress and excessive muscle

activity lead to insufficient amount of oxygen (Gulhan et al., 2012). Gills generally absorb

water-soluble foreign compounds (Fanta et al., 2003). Fish liver is the primary organ

associated to the biotransformation of organic materials. This organ is very sensitive against organic and inorganic agents which is releated to the environment itself and other organs

(Stori et al., 2014). Spleen is erythropoietic tissue involves in the synthesis of new

erythrocytes and reservoir in primary hemopoietic organs. Spleen is the unique organ in

fish to trap antigens (Balamurugan et al., 2012). Contraction and relaxation in the working

of fish heart are a result of the complex interaction of many individual cells connected

together by specialized adhesion structures. The heart allows generating pressure to pump

blood around the body. This organ is important for adaptation to environmental conditions

such as fluctuating, temperatures, oxygen and pH (Galli & Richards, 2012). Due to the

brain being the most shielded part of the body and the lipophilic structure of the brain does

not allow some materials to pass over cell membranes (Gulhan et al., 2014).

Fish are an important aquatic organism. Fish products are an important source of

protein for human consumption (Selamoglu et al., 2012). Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are conditionally essential nutrients for adequate growth, development and

function in humans (Gil et al., 2012). Among them, omega-3 PUFA (ω3 PUFA) have

gained popularity due to their various health promoting and diseases preventing attributes

(Wang et al., 2012).

Assay of total RNA levels was done for deriving introductory information about

the total protein amount in organism. The study on total RNA levels is also significant since

it might provide introductory knowledge about total protein amount. There is no sufficient

evidence about the modulating role of pollen on total protein and total RNA levels after

pollen administration in fish. The present study was designed to test the impact of ethanolic

pollen extracts in different concentrations on total protein and total RNA levels in muscle,

gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain of fish. The comparing the total protein amounts of fish with various concentrations at

supplement diets helps to understand their metabolic and physiological distinctions and also


- 7 -

environmental interactions of rainbow trout.

Our study aimed to occur the effects of various concentrations (0.5, 2.5, 5, 10, 20

and 30 ppm) of ethanolic pollen extract on total protein and total RNA levels in muscle,

gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain tissues of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Material and Methods Animals and experimental design. Rainbow trouts (Oncorhynchus mykiss) with

average weight of 248.54±5.12 g were obtained from Camardi, Ecemis fish farm in Nigde,

Turkey. Then they were transferred to research station in Nigde University under optimum

conditions with the dimension of 8x5x1.5 m and acclimated for 15 days. They were fed

with commercial food once daily. Physical and chemical parameters of water are shown in table 1. At the present study, seven experimental groups, each consisting of eight animals,

were used. It has four replicates including 7 fish each. Randomly, we chosen 2 fish from

every tank. As a result, each experimental group including totally 8 animals with four

replicate. The fish administered to 0.5 ppm pollen extract as group I, 2.5 ppm as group II, 5

ppm as group III, 10 ppm as group IV, 20 ppm as group V 30 ppm as VI and untreated fish

as control group were used for 96 h. Then, they were sacrificed in accordance with the

guidelines for approved by the Committee of Animal Experiments at Cumhuriyet

University, Sivas, Turkey.

Table 1. Amount of physical and chemical parameters of water during the present study.

Parameters Before treatment After

treatment

Dissolved oxygen (ppm)

Chemical oxygen demand (ppm)

Suspended solids (ppm)

Calcium (ppm)

Sodium (ppm)

Chloride (ppm)

Total nitrogen (ppm)

Hardness (CaCO3) (ppm)

Temperature (oC)

pH

7.6 ± 0.6

13.1 ± 0.4

37.6 ± 1.5

132.0 ± 1.8

24.4 ± 0.4

15.0±1.2

5.3 ± 0.5

179.3 ± 3.6

12.5 ± 1.6

7.6 ± 0.1

7.4 ± 0.3

15.5 ± 0.8

41.1 ± 1.2

109.1 ± 1.5

17.7 ± 0.3

16.0±1.8

6.2 ± 0.7

163.2 ± 2.3

11 ± 0.3

7.6 ± 0.1

Preparation of pollen extractive solution. Pollen was obtained from a farm at

village Kocaavsar in Balikesir, Turkey and diluted to 30% in ethanol. It was kept in dark at

room temperature and moderately shaken for one day. Afterward, the extracts were filtered

twice, dried and stored in sealed bottles at 4°C until used (Marghitas et al., 2009).

Preparation of tissues for biochemical analyses. After application for 96 hours, fish

were anaesthetised with clove oil (Mylonas et al., 2005). Muscle, gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain tissues of fish were removed and stored at -80 °C until used. Tissues were

weighed and then homogenized in 100 mL of 2 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.4. Samples

were centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min at 4 °C and then supernatants were kept in the deep

freeze at -80 °C until analysed. Supernatants were used for determination of total protein

and total RNA levels.

Protein Assay. Supernatants of fish tissues were used for determination of total

protein. Total protein was quantified by the colorimetric method of Lowry et al. using BSA

as the standard (Lowry et al., 1951).


- 8 -

Measurement of Total RNA Levels. Three steps were performed on the

supernatants of tissues to measure total RNA levels (Chomzynski & Sacchi, 1987). These

stages are (i) extraction, (ii) precipitation and washing with ethanol later, and (iii) resolution

in double-distilled water. After the three stages, total RNA levels were quantified

spectrophotometrically at 280 nm (Chomzynski & Sacchi, 1987).

Statistical analysis. Because parametric test hypotheses were implemented in the

data evaluation by uploading the data, which were obtained from our study, on SPSS ver.

22.0, (Kolmogorof-Simirnov) the variance analysis, Tukey’s test, Anova analysis and

Correlation analysis were applied and the error level was considered as 0.05.

Results and Discussion The effects of pollen extracts in various concentrations on total RNA and total

protein levels in muscle, gill, liver, spleen, heart and brain tissues of rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) have been showed in table 2 and 3. Total RNA levels in muscle,

spleen and brain tissues of fish administered to 0.5 ppm pollen extract did not change

(P>0.05) compared to control group (Table 2), but there were statistically increases

(P<0.05) in total RNA levels levels of all of tissues of 30 ppm pollen groups (Table 2).

Total protein levels of all tissues with 0.5 ppm pollen administration were stable

(P>0.05) compared with control group (Table 3). But, total protein levels in all of tissues

of 20 and 30 ppm pollen groups significantly increased compared to control group

(P<0.05) (Table 3).

In the present study, there were statistically significant (P<0.05) increases in total RNA levels of gill, liver and heart tissues of all experimental groups applied to all

concentrations (0.5, 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 30 ppm) of pollen extract compared to control group.

Generally, the highest value of total RNA (P<0.05) occured in 20 and 30 ppm

concentration groups of tissues.

Our data show a significant change in total protein levels among different pollen

concentration groups. The total RNA levels in fish tissues also increased depending on

concentration of pollen. Synthesis of all proteins depends on translation of RNA. Changes

in the levels of total protein may be parallel with changes in the levels of total RNA

recorded. The total RNA levels may act as an indicator of the total protein levels.

Increasing the level of RNA involved in these tissues of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus

mykiss) shows interaction at the transcriptional level. Increasing concentrations of pollen

may change the transcriptional case in the fish tissues.

Conclusions

This work was determine the effective concentration of pollen on biochemical

parameters in tissues of aquatic animals. Thus, this study aimed to determine the effective

concentrations of pollen extract on biochemical parameters in muscle, gill, liver, spleen,

heart and brain of rainbow trout. As a result, the present study shows that pollen causes

understanding of the interactions at the transcriptional and translational levels in rainbow

trouts. For the first time, the present work investigates the effects and useful concentration

of pollen on biochemical parameters in some tissues of fish. The results suggest that pollen

may possess transcriptional and translational expressions that could influence serum total

RNA and total protein levels in fish. The data of this study will shed light on new researchs in the future and contribute to the scientific literature.


- 9 -

Tab

le 2

. C

han

ges

in

tota

l R

NA

level

s w

ith

eth

anoli

c po

llen

extr

act

in v

ario

us

con

cen

trat

ion

s in

dif

fere

nt

tiss

ues

of

rain

bo

w t

rou

t (O

nco

rhyn

chu

s m

ykis

s).

Th

e m

ean

dif

fere

nce

is

sign

ific

ant

at t

he

0,0

5 l

evel

. a,

b,

c, d

is s

tati

stic

ally

dif

fere

nt.

Tab

le 3

. C

han

ges

in

tota

l p

rote

in l

evel

s w

ith

eth

ano

lic

po

llen

extr

act

in v

ario

us

con

cen

trat

ion

s in

dif

fere

nt

tiss

ues

of

rain

bo

w t

rou

t (O

nco

rhyn

chu

s m

ykis

s).

Th

e m

ean

dif

fere

nce

is

sign

ific

ant

at t

he

0,0

5 l

evel

. a,

b,

c, d

is

stat

isti

call

y d

iffe

ren

t.

G

rou

ps

Tis

sues

Mea

n±

SD

(m

g/m

L)

F

Sig

nif

ican

t C

on

trol

0.5

pp

m

2.5

pp

m

5 p

pm

1

0 p

pm

2

0 p

pm

3

0 p

pm

Mu

scle

5

3.3

4±

6.5

0b

77.2

9±

32

.56

b 1

47

.38

±1

1.2

2a

123

.88

±2

6.9

4a

104

.56

±2

0.1

0a

96.1

7±

47

.31

a 1

45

.97

±8

0.9

3a

4.5

9

0.0

02

Gil

l 5

5.2

0±

18

.56

b 4

7.9

0±

6.8

3b

82.3

8±

30

.05

b 9

2.8

8±

21

.07

b 8

5.2

4±

9.1

8b

113

.77

±2

4.7

7a

129

.01

±8

3.2

4a

3.7

6

0.0

05

Liv

er

68.2

7±

17

.93

b 5

4.1

8±

18

.68

b 6

5.9

8±

12

.60

b 8

4.3

8±

7.5

2b

94.0

5±

12

.33

a 1

04

.26

±3

3.0

2a

130

.70

±3

5.4

6a

8.5

3

0.0

01

Sp

leen

4

0.1

4±

12

.82

b 3

8.5

2±

12

.94

b 4

8.9

5±

11

.71

b 5

9.1

7±

7.8

5b

69.4

5±

5.8

2a

73.4

3±

4.1

9a

90.0

2±

9.0

9a

22.6

2

0.0

01

Hea

rt

80.4

0±

10

.49

b 7

1.0

5±

15

.13

b 6

2.7

2±

16

.05

b 9

9.7

6±

14

.51

b 9

3.6

8±

12

.66

b 1

29

.70

±2

1.0

8a

122

.94

±9

.98

a 1

7.7

4

0.0

01

Bra

in

45.1

9±

10

.25

c 6

7.9

1±

25

.91

c 1

28

.43

±5

.95

b 1

31

.68

±1

3.6

3b

136

.79

±2

3.5

2b

139

.48

±1

0.7

7a

165

.15

±4

7.4

1a

19.9

0

0.0

01

Gro

up

s

Tis

sues

Mea

n±

SD

(µ

g/m

L)

F

Sig

nif

ican

t

Con

trol

0.5

pp

m

2.5

pp

m

5 p

pm

1

0 p

pm

2

0 p

pm

3

0 p

pm

Mu

scle

3

6.0

1±

9.2

6 b

37.6

5±

7.4

1b

40.2

5±

5.7

9b

43.1

2±

4.0

1b

54.9

7±

3.3

1b

61.5

4±

5.8

4b

127

.03

±8

0.4

9a

6.4

8

0.0

01

Gil

l 3

2.0

7±

5.8

5c

54.0

7±

6.5

0b

49.2

9±

8.3

7b

54.4

5±

11

.56

b 6

7.6

5±

5.4

4a

69.6

1±

12

.71

a 8

0.8

1±

2.6

1a

22.2

8

0.0

01

Liv

er

74.7

4±

31

.96

c 7

9.6

8±

7.8

7b

91.2

2±

5.9

3b

90.9

2±

7.7

6b

100

.30

±3

.34

a 1

42

.29

±1

9.9

8a

122

.72

±9

.59

a 1

4.6

3

0.0

01

Sp

leen

3

8.6

9±

16

.81

c 3

2.3

0±

12

.89

c 4

0.0

0±

2.4

8c

53.1

0±

4.6

1b

61.5

1±

5.0

4b

307

.78

±3

9.2

0a

233

.29

±3

0.4

6a

3.4

2

0.0

09

Hea

rt

26.5

5±

16

.73

c 4

5.8

1±

9.1

8b

55.5

6±

3.4

2a

40.2

4±

14

.69

b 4

9.5

8±

5.3

8b

54.1

8±

9.2

5a

68.5

5±

10

.74

a 1

1.4

7

0.0

01

Bra

in

17.8

8±

9.3

9b

26.2

7±

10

.15

b 2

5.8

6±

5.5

8b

29.0

4±

7.6

0b

43.7

9±

6.2

2b

53.7

1±

6.8

3a

88.2

7±

51

.16

a 8

.27

0.0

01


- 10 -

In conclusion, protein levels in fish tissues were related to concentrations of pollen

extract. The total RNA and protein levels in fish are also directly related to additive foods.

Acknowledgements

This work is supported by scientific Research Project Found of Cumhuriyet

University under the Project number (F-380).

References

Balamurugan, S., Deivasigamani, B., Kumaran, S., Sakthivel, M., Rajsekar, T., Priyadharsini, P., 2012.

Melanomacrophage centers aggregation in P. lineatus spleen as bioindicator of environmental change.

Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 2: 635-638.

Chomzynski, P., Sacchi, N., 1987. Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanatephenol-

chloroform extraction. Analitical Biochemistry, 162: 156-159.

Duran, A., Talas, Z.S., 2009. Biochemical changes and sensory assessment on tissues of carp (Cyprinus carpio,

Linnaeus 1758) during sale conditions. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 35: 709-714.

Fanta, E., Rios, F.S.A., Romao, S., Vianna, A.C.C., Freiberger, S., 2003. Histopathology of the fish Corydoras

paleatus contaminated with sublethal levels of organophosphorus in water and food. Ecotoxicology and

Environmental Safety, 54: 119-130.

Galli, G.L.J., Richards, J.G., 2012. The effect of temperature on mitochondrial respiration in permeabilized

cardiac fibres from the freshwater turtle, Trachemys scripta. Journal of Thermal Biology, 37: 195-200.

Gil, A., Serra-Majem, L., Calder, P.C., Uauy, R., 2012. Systematic reviews of the role of omega-3 fatty acids in

the prevention and treatment of disease. British Journal of Nutrition, 107: S1-S2.

Gulhan, M.F., Duran, A., Talas, Z.S., Kakoolaki, S., Mansouri, S.M., 2012. Effects of propolis on microbiologic

and biochemical parameters of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after exposure to the pesticide.

Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 11(3): 490-503.

Gulhan, M.F., Akgul, H., Dastan, T., Durna Dastan, S., Selamoglu Talas, Z., 2014. Effects of different

concentrations of pollen extract on brain of Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of Coastal Life Medicine,

2(3): 169-174.

Leja, M., Mareczek, A., Wyzgolik, G., Klepacz-Baniak, J., Czekonska, K., 2007. Antioxidative properties of bee

pollen in selected plant species. Food Chemistry, 100: 237-240.

Lowry, O., Rosebrough, N.J., Farr, A.L, Randall, R.J., 1951. Protein measurements with the folin phenol reagent.

The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 193: 265-275.

Marghitas, L.A., Stanciu, O.G., Dezmirean, D.S., Bobis, O., Popescu, O., Bogdanov, S., Campos, M.G., 2009. In

vitro antioxidant capacity of honeybee-collected pollen of selected floral origin harvested from

Romania. Food Chemistry,115: 878-883.

Mylonas, C.C., Cardinaletti, G., Sigelaki, I., Polzonetti-Magni, A., 2005. Comparative efficacy of clove oil and 2-

phenoxyethanol as anesthetics in the aquaculture of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and

gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) at different temperatures. Aquaculture, 246 (1-4): 467-481.

Selamoglu, T.Z., Pinar, D.S., Fuat, G.M., Orun, I., Kakoolaki, S., 2012. Effects of propolis on some blood

parameters and enzymes in carp exposed to arsenic. Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 11 (2): 405-

414.

Stori, E.M., Rocha, M.L.C.F., Dias, J.F., dos Santos, C.E.I., de Souza, C.T., Amaral, L., Dias, J.F., 2014.

Elemental characterization of injuries in fish liver. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics

Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 318: 83-87.

Talas, Z.S., Gulhan, M.F., 2009. Effects of various propolis concentrations on biochemical and hematological

parameters of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72 (7):

1994-1998.

Talas, Z.S., Gulhan, M.F., 2013. Effects of various pollen concentrations on some biochemical and hematological

parameters and paraoxanase activity in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Iranian Journal of

Fisheries Sciences, 12 (4): 928-937.

Talas, Z.S., Gulhan M.F., Erdogan K., Orun, I., 2014. Antioxidant effects of propolis on carp Cyprinus carpio

exposed to arsenic: biochemical and histopathologic findings. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 108:

241-249.

Wang, W.F., Li,T., Ning, Z.X., Wang, Y.H., Yang, B., Ma, Y.J., Yang, X.Q., 2012. A process for the synthesis of

PUFA-enriched triglycerides from high-acid crude fish oil. Journal of Food Engineering, 109: 366-

371.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044848605001316




- 11 -

FEEDING ECOLOGY OF TWO SYMPATRIC FISH SPECIES IN A

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

Marius Andrei RĂU1, Gabriel PLAVAN1*, Ștefan Adrian STRUNGARU1, Mircea

NICOARĂ1, Ioan MOGLAN1 and Dorel URECHE2 1 Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Bd. Carol I, 20A, 700505, Iași, Romania,

[email protected] 2 Faculty of Science, “Vasile Alecsandri” University of Bacău, Str. Mărășești 157, 600115, Bacău, Romania

Abstract. Feeding ecology of a species is linked to its population dynamics, the further analysis giving us an

understanding for the habitat preferences, prey selection, evolution, competition and energy transfer within the

ecosystem. The main objective of this study is to investigate the macroinvertebrate based diet, the characteristics

of the prey and a possible competitiveness for food resources between two sympatric ray-finned fish species,

Salmo trutta and Barbatula barbatula, generally known as feeding competitors. All the fish (111 individuals) were

captured by electrofishing on a 23 km section of the Trotuș River, between Ciobănuș and Dofteana localities,

during summer of 2009. To estimate the dietary importance of each prey category, we calculated the prey-specific

abundance of each food category (A%) and the frequency of occurrence (FO). The Costello graphical method was

applied to describe the feeding strategy and prey importance. We also calculated the prey diversity – Shannon (H),

species evenness – Pielou (J), niche breadth measures (Levins – B; Hurlbert – BA), and niche overlap (MacArthur

& Levins’ measure – M, and Pianka’s index – O). Salmo trutta and Barbatula barbatula were defined as specialist

feeders with low values of niche overlap between the two species, indicating a reduced competition for food

resources.

Keywords: prey, feeding strategy, niche breadth, niche overlap

Rezumat. Ecologia hrănirii a două specii simpatrice de pești într-un ecosistem de apă curgătoare. Ecologia

hrănirii unei specii este legată de dinamica populației și contribuie la analiza unor subiecte foarte importante cum

ar fi preferințele de habitat, selecția prăzii, evoluție, competiție și transferul de energie în cuprinsul ecosistemului.

Scopul principal al acestui studiu este analiza dietei bazată pe macronevertebrate, caracteristicilor prăzii și a unei

posibile competiții pentru resursele trofice între două specii simpatrice de pești, Salmo trutta și Barbatula

barbatula, cunoscute în general ca fiind competitoare la nivel trofic. Peștii (111 indivizi) au fost capturați prin

electronarcoză pe o secțiune de 23 km a râului Trotuș, între localitățile Ciobănuș și Dofteana, în vara anului 2009.

Pentru a estima importanța fiecărei categorii de pradă, am calculat abundența (A%) și frecvența (FO) prăzii.

Metoda grafică Costello a fost aplicată pentru a descrie strategia hrănirii și importanța prăzii. De asemenea, am

calculat diversitatea prăzii – Shannon (H), echitabilitatea – Pielou (J), lărgimea nișelor trofice (metoda Levins (B)

– Hurlbert (BA)) și suprapunerea nișelor trofice (metoda MacArthur & Levins – M și indicele Pianka – O). Salmo

trutta și Barbatula barbatula au fost definite ca specii cu mod de hrănire specialist, cu un grad scăzut de

suprapunere al nișelor trofice, indicând o competiție redusă între cele două specii pentru resursele trofice.

Cuvinte cheie: pradă, strategia hrănirii, nișă trofică, suprapunerea nișei trofice

Introduction

Feeding ecology of a species is linked to its population dynamics, the further

analises giving us an understanding for the habitat preferences (Wetherbee & Cortes, 2004),

prey selection (Motta & Wilga, 2001), evolution (Collar et al., 2009), competition (Stergiou

& Karpouzi, 2002; Svanback & Bolnick, 2007) and energy transfer within the ecosystem

(Nakano & Murakami, 2001; Baxter et al., 2004, 2005; Rezende et al., 2008).

Marius Andrei Rău et al.

- 12 -

Diet composition shows from where animals derive their sustenance, indicating at

the same time potential food competitors and predator-prey interactions (Ahlbeck et al.,

2012).

The Brown Trout (Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758) is a salmonid fish native to upper

Danube and Volga drainages and widely distributed in Europe and Asia. It is usually found

in streams, ponds, rivers and lakes (Scott & Scott, 1988). The Brown trout prefers cold and

well-oxygenated upland waters, especially in the mountainous areas, with submerged rocks,

undercut banks and overhanging vegetation (de Moor & Bruton, 1988). The Stone

loach (Barbatula barbatula Linnaeus, 1758) is a cyprinid fish widely distributed in Europe

(Kottelat & Freyhof, 2007) and Asia (Wheeler, 1992). It is usually found in flowing

stretches of streams with gravel to stony bottom, sandy canals and lake shores. The main objective of this study was to investigate the macroinvertebrate based

diet, the characteristics of the prey and a possible competitiveness for food resources

between two sympatric ray-finned fish species, Salmo trutta and Barbatula barbatula,

generally known as feeding competitors (Hartley, 1947; Smyly, 1955).

Material and Methods

Study Area

The study was carried out on Trotuș River, a tributary of the Siret River, Eastern

Romania. Trotuș has a length of 162 km, a flow rate of 35 m3/sec-1 and a catchment area of

4456 km2. The altitude of the river ranges from 1380 m at its source (Ciuc Mountains) to 97

m at its confluence with Siret, near the town of Adjud. Field and Laboratory Methods

All the fish (111 individuals) were captured by electrofishing on a 23 km section

of the river, between Ciobănuș and Dofteana localities, during the summer of 2009. The

sampling sites have been established to intercept as accurate as possible the biological

aspects as well as the aquatic vegetation (periphyton, macrophytes), riparian vegetation

(shrubs, reed, herbaceous plants) and the substrate structure (rockfill, gravel, sand, mud).

Fish were frozen in situ with a portable freezer to avoid digestion of the stomach contents.

In the laboratory, fish individuals were eviscerated and the gut contents were examined

under the stereo- and binocular microscopes. Prey items were identified to the genus or

species level. There were exceptions for the individuals largely digested which were

identified to higher taxonomic ranks or assigned to an undetermined category.

Data Analysis To estimate the dietary importance of each prey category, we calculated the prey-

specific abundance of each food category (A%) and the frequency of occurrence (FO). The

Costello (1990) graphical method was applied to describe the feeding strategy and prey

importance.

We also calculated the prey diversity – Shannon (H) (Magurran, 2004), species

evenness – Pielou (J) to evaluate specialization in the diet (Oscoz et al., 2005), niche

breadth measures (Levins – B, and Hurlbert – BA) (Hurlbert, 1978), and niche overlap

(MacArthur & Levins’ measure – M, and Pianka’s index – O) (MacArthur & Levins, 1967;

Pianka, 1973).


- 13 -

Results and Discussion

A total number of 37 macroinvertebrates taxa/groups were identified in the gut

contents of brown trout and stone loach, summing a total of 3839 prey items (Table 1). The

most abundant macroinvertebrates identified were diptera (chironomids), ephemeroptera

(Baetis spp., Ecdyonurus spp.), plecoptera (Perla spp.) and trichoptera larvae (Hydropsyche

spp., Polycentropus spp.), a strong dominance of the Class Insecta (86.48%) being

observed.

From the total of 111 gut contents analysed, 57 belonged to Salmo trutta and 54 to

Barbatula barbatula.

Table 1. Presence and abundance of each macroinvertebrate taxon/group identified in the

gut contents of brown trout, and of stone loach.

Macroinvertebrate

taxon/group

Salmo

trutta

Barbatula

barbatula

Macroinvertebrate abundance in gut

contents

Salmo trutta Barbatula barbatula

Antocha spp. + + 3 4

Baetis spp. + + 587 423

Ceratopogonidae + 5

Chironomidae + + 53 2142

Coenagrion puella + 1

Dixa spp. + 6

Drusus spp. + 4

Ecdyonurus spp. + + 17 44

Elmis spp. + 2

Elophila spp. + 4

Ephemera spp. + 7

Gammarus spp. + + 1 1

Gerris spp. + 3

Haliplus spp. + 1

Helobdella stagnalis + 1

Hydracarina + 1

Hydraena spp. + 1

Hydrophilus spp. + 2

Hydropsyche spp. + + 117 104

Hydroptila spp. + 1

Indeterminate + + 17 14

Isogenus spp. + + 12 2

Limnephilus spp. + 9

Limnius spp. + 3

Limoniidae + + 1 8

Nemoura spp. + 1

Notonecta spp. + 1

Oligochaeta + 6

Perla spp. + + 1 46

Platambus spp. + 2

Polycentropus spp. + + 18 13

Rhagionidae + 3

Rhyacophila spp. + 2

Simuliidae + + 19 18

Tabanus spp. + 3

Terrestrial + + 37 63

Tipula spp. + + 1 4

TOTAL 925 2914


- 14 -

Following the analysis of the brown trout diet, a total number of 30

macroinvertebrates taxa/groups were identified summing a total of 925 individuals. The

most important prey items found in the diet of Salmo trutta were Baetis spp. (A%=63.45;

FO=78.94%), Hydropsyche spp. (A%=12.64%; FO=82.45%) and chironomids

(A%=5.72%; FO=43.85%) (Fig. 1, Table 2).

The dietary analyses for the brown trout indicated medium values regarding prey

diversity for Shannon index (H=1.5029) and Pielou index (J=0.4419) and a narrow niche

breadth (B=2.3506; BA=0.0466) (Fig. 3).

Figure 1. Feeding strategy displayed by the Costello (1990) graphical method for the brown trout

(Salmo trutta).

Table 2. Prey-specific abundance (A%) and frequency of occurrence (FO) values of each taxon

identified in the gut contents of brown trout, and of stone loach.


A% FO% A% FO%

Ant 0.32 3.50 0.13 1.85

Bae 63.45 78.94 14.51 85.18

Cer * * 0.17 7.40

Chi 5.72 43.85 73.50 94.44

Coe 0.10 1.75 * * Dix 0.64 3.50 * * Dru 0.43 5.26 * * Ecd 1.83 19.29 1.51 27.77

Elm 0.21 3.50 * * Elo 0.43 3.50 * * Eph * * 0.24 9.25

Gam 0.10 1.75 0.03 1.85

Ger 0.32 3.50 * * Hal 0.10 1.75 * * Hst * * 0.03 1.85

Hrn 0.10 1.75 * *

Hna 0.10 1.75 * *

Hus 0.21 3.50 * *

Frequency of occurence (%)


- 15 -


A% FO% A% FO%

Hyd 12.64 82.45 3.56 46.29

Hla 0.10 1.75 * *

Indet 1.83 19.29 0.48 22.22

Iso 1.29 17.54 0.06 3.70

Lus * * 0.30 9.25

Lim 0.32 5.26 * *

Lmn 0.10 1.75 0.27 9.25

Nem * * 0.03 1.85

Not 0.10 1.75 * *

Oli 0.64 8.77 * *

Per 0.10 1.75 1.57 40.74

Pla 0.21 3.50 * *

Pol 1.94 22.80 0.44 1.,81

Rha * * 0.10 5.55

Rhy * * 0.06 1.85

Sim 2.05 14.03 0.61 3.70

Tab 0.32 3.50 * *

Terr 4 29.82 2.16 35.18

Tip 0.10 1.75 0.13 7.40

In the stomach contents of Barbatula barbatula, 21 macroinvertebrates

taxa/groups were identified summing a total of 2914 individuals. The Costello graphical method indicated that chironomids (A%=73.50%; FO=94.44%), Baetis spp. (A%=14.51%,

FO=85.18%) and Hydropsyche spp. (A%=3.56%, FO=46.29%) were the most important

prey items (Table 2, Fig. 2). There were observed low values for prey diversity of stone

loach (H)=1.0211; (J)=0.3354, a narrow niche breadth (B=1.7739; BA=0.0387) being

indicated (Fig. 3).

Figure 2. Feeding strategy displayed by the Costello (1990) graphical method for the stone loach

(Barbatula barbatula).

Frequency of occurence (%)


- 16 -

Figure 3. Diversity indices and niche breadth values of brown trout, and of stone loach.

In several cases we found in the digestive tracts small pieces of plastic, stones and

colored fibers. Salmo trutta is a diurnal and nocturnal predator (Heggenes et al., 1993), mainly

feeding on benthic prey but also on surface prey (Cadwallader & Backhouse, 1983;

Rochard & Elie, 1994). The major part of its diet consists of insects, mainly ephemeroptera,

trichoptera, diptera and plecoptera larvae (Ureche et al., 2008, 2010).

According to Cada et al., 2003, amphipods and diptera larvae (Chironomidae)

consisted a large part of the brown trout diet. However, our study showed that these prey

categories were poorly selected by the fish.

The brown trout tend to feed on molluscs during the summer (Oscoz et al., 2000).

Despite that, the gut contents of the brown trout lacked of molluscs of any kind.

Barbatula barbatula is an opportunistic species particularly active at night

(Fischer, 2004) mainly feeding on diptera larvae, mostly chironomids (Hartley, 1947;

Smyly, 1955; Maitland, 1965; Perrin, 1980). Other predominant preys are ephemeropterans, plecopterans and trichopterans, especially in spring and summer (Sauvonsaari, 1971).

The stone loach diet indicated a constant preference for certain prey types (Nicoară

et al., 2006), particularly for diptera larvae (Chironomidae).

According to Oscoz et al., 2004, amphipods were selected by the stone loach in

significant numbers (A%=5.29%). However, our investigation indicated that Barbatula

barbatula fed on this type of prey in lower numbers (A%=0.03%).

The dietary analyses, based on macroinvertebrates, showed low values of niche

overlap (M=0.2488-0.3296; O=0.2863) between the two species, indicating a reduced

competition for food resources.

Overall, Salmo trutta and Barbatula barbatula were defined as specialist feeders

with a narrow niche breadth. Both species presented an opportunistic feeding behavior (Ureche et al., 2008).


- 17 -

The stone loach tend to choose less mobile prey, with preference for the benthic

zone while highly mobile organisms are preferred by the brown trout.

According to Hartley, 1947 and Smyly, 1955, Salmo trutta and Barbatula

barbatula, were generally known as feeding competitors, although our study revealed a

reduced competition for food resourses based on niche overlap analysis.

Conclusions

Consequent to the analysis of the brown trout and stone loach diets, a strong

dominance of the Class Insecta (86.48%) in the food spectra of the two fish species was

observed.

A total number of 37 macroinvertebrates taxa/groups were identified in the gut contents of the brown trout and of stone loach, summing a total of 3839 prey items. The

most abundant macroinvertebrates identified were diptera (chironomids), ephemeroptera

(Baetis spp., Ecdyonurus spp.), plecoptera (Perla spp.) and trichoptera larvae (Hydropsyche

spp., Polycentropus spp.).

In terms of prey diversity, the dietary analysis for the brown trout, indicated higher

values, compared with the stone loach.

The two species presented narrow niche breadth and low values of niche overlap, a

reduced competition for trophic resources between the two species being observed.

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natural population. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274 (1611): 839-844.

Ureche, D., Nicoară, M., Ureche, C., 2008. A comparative analysis of food components in fish populations from

the Buzau River basin (Romania). Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies, 37 (1): 121-132.

Ureche, D., Ureche, C., Nicoară, M., Plăvan, G., 2010. The role of macroinvertebrates in diets of fish in River

Dambovita, România. Verhandlungen des Internationalen Verein Limnologie, 30 (10): 1582-1586.

Wetherbee, B.M., Cortes, E., 2004. Food consumption and feeding habits. In: Carrier, J.C., Musick, J.A.,

Heithaus, M.R. (eds), Biology of sharks and their relatives. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, 225-246.

Wheeler, A., 1992. Freshwater fishes of Britain and Europe. Rainbow Books, Elsley House, London.

Appendix: Acronyms used to abbreviate the macroinvertebrate groups, genus or species

binomial nomenclature: Ant – Antocha spp. Bae – Baetis spp. Cer – Ceratopogonidae Chi – Chironomidae Coe – Coenagrion puella Dix – Dixa spp.

Dru – Drusus spp. Ecd – Ecdyonurus spp. Elm – Elmis spp. Elo – Elophila spp. Eph – Ephemera spp. Gam – Gammarus spp. Ger – Gerris spp.

Hal – Haliplus spp. Hst – Helobdella stagnalis Hrn – Hydracarina Hna – Hydraena spp. Hus – Hydrophilus spp. Hyd – Hydropsyche spp.

Hla – Hydroptila spp. Indet – Indeterminate Iso – Isogenus spp. Lus – Limnephilus spp Lim – Limnius spp. Lmn – Limoniidae Nem – Nemoura spp.

Not – Notonecta spp. Oli – Oligochaeta Per – Perla spp. Pla – Platambus spp. Pol – Polycentropus spp. Rha – Rhagionidae

Rhy – Rhyacophila spp. Sim – Simuliidae Tab – Tabanus spp. Terr – Terrestrial Tip – Tipula spp.


- 19 -

THE IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON AMPHIBIANS AND

REPTILES. STUDY CASE – IRON GATES I

Florina STĂNESCU1*, Elena BUHACIUC1, Paul SZÉKELY1, Diana SZÉKELY1,

Laurențiu ROZYLOWICZ2 and Dan COGĂLNICEANU1 1Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Ovidius University of Constanta, 1 Universitatii Av., Corp B, room

P43, 900470 Constanta, Romania

2Centre for Environmental Research and Impact Studies (CCMESI), University of Bucharest, 1 N. Bălcescu Av.,

010041 Bucharest, Romania *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract. The construction of the Iron Gates I reservoir in the early 1970s led to major changes in the structure of

aquatic and associated terrestrial ecosystems, altering the microclimate and hydrological cycle. A comparative

analysis of herpetofauna diversity within the proximate areas of the Iron Gates I reservoir in Romania, before and

after 1971, revealed changes in the structure of amphibian and reptile communities. Two amphibian species not

reported previously were inventoried in the area (Rana temporaria and Pelophylax kl. esculentus), while other

four species previously present were no longer reported after 1971 (Pelobates syriacus, Triturus cristatus,

Lissotriton vulgaris and Zootoca vivipara).

Keywords: reservoir, modified ecosystems, amphibian and reptile communities, species diversity.

Rezumat. Impactul construcției de baraje asupra amfibienilor și reptilelor. Studiu de caz – Porțile de Fier I.

Amenajarea lacului de acumulare Porțile de Fier I, la începutul anilor 1970, a condus la schimbări majore în

structura ecosistemelor acvatice și a celor terestre adiacente, alterând microclimatul și ciclul hidrologic. Analiza

comparativă a diversității specifice a herpetofaunei dinainte și după 1971, din zonele adiacente lacului de

acumulare Porțile de Fier I de pe teritoriul României a evidențiat modificările apărute în structura comunităților de

amfibieni și reptile. Studiile după 1971 semnalează prezența a două noi specii pentru această zonă (Rana

temporaria și Pelophylax kl. esculentus), în timp ce alte patru specii prezente înainte de 1971 nu au mai fost

semnalate ulterior (Pelobates syriacus, Triturus cristatus, Lissotriton vulgaris și Zootoca vivipara).

Cuvinte cheie: lac de acumulare, ecosisteme modificate, comunități de amfibieni și reptile, diversitate specifică.

Introduction

Drinking water supplies, electricity production, irrigation and flood control are all

services provided by dams and associated structures. However, rivers are complex aquatic

ecosystems and damming causes fragmentation and alters their physical, chemical and

biological characteristics, furthermore affecting riparian environments. Moreover, the

effects of the altered processes may become obvious only later in time or when combined

with other factors (Friedl & Wüest, 2002). The Iron Gates I reservoir is one of the largest hydroelectric structures in

Romania, with an area of 104.4 km² and a volume of 2.1 km³ (Popovici & Dăscălescu,

2000). The creation of the reservoir in the early 1970s led to major changes in the structure

of aquatic and associated terrestrial ecosystems, altering the microclimate and hydrological

cycle. Nowadays, the reservoir and the associated ecosystems on the Romanian side are

protected by law and integrated within the Iron Gates Natural Park and the European

ecological network Natura 2000: two Special Protection Areas ROSPA0026 Danube

watercourse Baziaș – Iron Gates and ROSPA0080 Almăjului-Locvei Mountains and the

Florina Stănescu et al.

- 20 -

Site of Community Importance ROSCI0206 Iron Gates. Starting with 2011, The Iron Gates

Natural area was declared Wetland of International Importance (Ramsar site) (APNPDF,

2012).

Amphibians and reptiles are declining worldwide and are considered the most

threatened groups of vertebrates (Chanson et al., 2008; Böhm et al., 2012). One of the

major threats for both groups is habitat destruction. It is often very difficult to quantify the

impact of habitat destruction on amphibian and reptile communities since this involves

long-term studies, ideally before and after the impact. Before the construction of the Iron

Gates Dam, the Romanian Academy started a complex research study in the area, one of the

outputs being a volume dedicated to the fauna in the area affected by the construction of the

dam, of which a chapter was dedicated to amphibians and reptiles (Fuhn, 1975). Based on the background information available for comparison, we attempted to estimate the impact

of the Iron Gates I dam and reservoir construction on the species richness of amphibians

and reptiles.


The study area is located along the entire Romanian shore of the Iron Gates I

reservoir and is represented by the proximal wetlands and terrestrial habitats (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Study area.

Herpetofauna occurrences within the study area were compiled into a database

from a series of published studies (Appendix), unpublished field data and museum


- 21 -

collections (i.e. Iași Museum). The taxonomy of the amphibian and reptile species present

in the area follows Speybroek et al. (2010). Although the large water frogs of the

Pelophylax complex (esculentus and ridibundus) are very difficult to distinguish, we

decided to consider them separately, as originally recorded. Since a large number of records

(42%) lacked geographic coordinates and referred to localities of toponyms difficult to

locate accurately, we used the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) 5 × 5 km grid system

for spatial representation. In order to refine our study, we selected only the grid cells that

intersected the shore of the reservoir within a 1 km band and split the data into records

before and after 1971 (Fig. 2). We computed separately the percentage of records per

species for amphibians and reptiles and inferred a trend of the species ranges (decreasing “-

”/ increasing “+”). We included in the “before 1971” category the work of Fuhn (1975) since it was based on fieldwork done during 1966-1967.

Figure 2. Herpetofauna occurrence records in UTM 5 x 5 km quadrates, before and after the Iron

Gates I dam construction.

The data collection resulted in 1404 occurrence records: 560 (40%) records in

published studies, 19 (1%) from museum collections and 825 (59%) from field surveys, of

which 753 (54%) our own records from field surveys conducted between 1997 and 2012.

The occurrence records are unevenly distributed in time, with 86% of the total occurrences

dated after 1971. The differences in the number of records partly originate in the fact that older publications refer to localities of toponyms and most probably included multiple

sightings. Our own occurrence records imply precise location using a GPS and resulted in

multiple occurrences within the vicinity of a locality.


- 22 -


Thirty-three species were inventoried between 1901 and 2012 in the study area: 16

amphibians and 17 reptiles (Table 1). Two new species of amphibians, unreported

previously were inventoried after 1971: Rana temporaria and Pelophylax kl. esculentus.

This could be either a consequence of the biased study effort before 1971, or due to

erroneous species identification. Because of the unclear taxonomic situation of the water

frogs, Pelophylax complex, authors considered the hybrid P. esculentus only as a

subspecies for a long time (Fuhn, 1960). Four species reported before 1971 were no longer

recorded after the construction of the dam: Triturus cristatus, Lissotriton vulgaris,

Pelobates syriacus and Zootoca vivipara, although the sampling effort significantly

intensified after this year. The trend indicates a range reduction in 10 amphibians and 13 reptiles, while the rest of the species expanded their ranges, taking advantage of the new

habitats created after the reservoir was formed (Table 1).

Table 1. Herpetofauna occurrences along the Iron Gates I reservoir between 1901-2012.

Occurrence records

Trend before 1971 after 1971

Amphibia Number Percentage Number Percentage

Salamandra salamandra 5 10.64 33 10.61 -

Triturus dobrogicus 1 2.13 1 0.32 -

Triturus cristatus 1 2.13 0 0.00 -

Lissotriton vulgaris 3 6.38 0 0.00 -

Bombina bombina 7 14. 89 9 2.89 -

Bombina variegata 5 10.64 16 5.14 - Pelobates fuscus 4 8.51 2 0.64 -

Pelobates syriacus 1 2.13 0 0.00 -

Bufo bufo 3 6.38 45 14.47 +

Bufo viridis 6 12.77 33 10.61 -

Hyla arborea 1 2.13 16 5.14 +

Rana dalmatina 3 6.38 33 10.61 +

Rana temporaria 0 0.0 3 0.96 +

Pelophylax kl. esculentus 0 0.0 57 18.33 +

Pelophylax lessonae 1 2.13 3 0.96 -

Pelophylax ridibundus 6 12.77 60 19.29 +

TOTAL 47 100 311 100

Reptilia Number Percentage Number Percentage

Testudo hermanni 31 20.13 443 49.66 +

Emys orbicularis 2 1.29 17 1.91 +

Ablepharus kitaibelii 7 4.54 11 1.23 -

Lacerta agilis 2 1.29 22 2.47 +

Lacerta viridis 13 8.44 98 10.99 +

Podarcis muralis 17 11.04 72 8.07 - Podarcis tauricus 3 1.94 7 0.78 -

Zootoca vivipara 2 1.29 0 0.00 -

Darevskia praticola 10 6.49 9 1.01 -

Anguis fragilis 6 3.89 9 1.01 -

Dolichophis caspius 9 5.84 15 1.68 -

Zamenis longissimus 3 1.94 14 1.57 -

Coronella austriaca 2 1.29 10 1.12 -

Natrix natrix 11 7.14 42 4.71 -

Natrix tessellata 16 10.38 86 9.64 - Vipera ammodytes 18 11.68 36 4.04 -

Vipera berus 2 1.29 1 0.11 -

TOTAL 154 100 892 100


- 23 -

The Iron Gates dam construction has significantly changed habitat structure,

facilitating the range expansion of floodplain species that might colonize parts of the

Danube river area. Nevertheless, changes in herpetofauna diversity were not only caused by

habitat modification. According to Fuhn (1975), the island of Ada Kaleh, which was

submerged after the creation of the reservoir, sheltered a rich herpetofauna consisting of

typical floodplain species. It also was the only site in the Iron Gates region from where

Pelobates syriacus was ever recorded and the area of the reservoir represented the western

limit of its distribution range (Džukić et al., 2008). This species has no longer been reported

anywhere else in this region after the loss of Ada Kaleh.

Conclusion Our study shows that the dam construction caused a mild restriction of the original

habitats of the species (i.e. hilly and mountain typical habitats), generated artificial habitats

(e.g. dykes, large concrete structures) and favoured the colonisation by floodplain

characteristic species.

Acknowledgements

Intensive mapping of the study area during 2012 was supported by LIFE10

NAT/RO/00740 „Improving the conservation status for the priority species and habitats in

the Iron Gates wetlands”, a project funded by the European Commission. The Romanian

National Authority for Scientific Research CNCS – UEFISCDI also provided logistic

support through grant PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0173. Special thanks to Dr. Tudor M., Dr. Pârvulescu, L., Dr. Plăiașu R. and Dr. Hartel T. for providing their field datasets. We are

grateful to Dr. Băncilă Raluca and Iosif Ruben for their invaluable help during field

surveys.

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Covaciu-Marcov, S.D., Sas, I., Cicort-Lucaciu, A., Peter, I., Bogdan, H., 2005. Notes upon the herpetofauna of the

South-West area of the county of Caraș-Severin, Romania. Revue Roumaine de Biologie, s. Biologie

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Covaciu-Marcov, S.D., Cicort-Lucaciu, A.S., Gaceu, O., Sas, I., Ferenți, S., Bogdan, H.V., 2009. The

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România. Studii și Cercetări de Biologie, Seria Zoologie, 23: 185-189.

Fejérváry-Lángh, A.M., 1943. Beiträge und Berichtigungen zum Reptilien-Teil des ungarischen Faunenkataloges.

Fragmentum Fauna Hungariae, 6: 81-98.

Fuhn, I.E., 1960. Amphibia. Ed. Acad. R. P. R., București.

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Fuhn, I., 1970. Amfibii și reptile din zona viitorului lac de baraj de la Porțile de Fier. Studii și Cercetări de

Biologie, Seria Zoologie, 22: 321-332.

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Ed. Acad. R. S. R., București.

Iftime, A., 2005. New observations on the herpetofauna from Domogled-Valea Cernei National Park and Porțile

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Cyrén, 1919) (Reptilia: Lacertidae) in Romania: filling a significant gap. Acta Herpetologica, 7: 175-

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Napoca, 12: 229-234.


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OYSTERCATCHER (HAEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS), STONE

CURLEW (BURHINUS OEDICNEMUS) AND LITTLE TERN

(STERNULA ALBIFRONS) IN LOWER SIRET RIVER COURSE,

ROMANIA - BREEDING PROOFS

Lucian Eugen BOLBOACĂ¹, Emanuel Ștefan BALTAG², Constantin ION² and Lucian

Fasolă MĂTĂSARU² ¹ Department of Biology, Ecology and Geography, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Informatics,

“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Romania, [email protected]

² Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Romania

Abstract. During tw years of study, we gathered data regarding the breeding of three rare bird species:

oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus) and little tern (Sterna albifrons) in

Lower Siret River Course Special Protected Area. Out of these only little tern was cited as a breeding species in

the Moldova region (only one nest recorded) but eastward from the study area. As a proof for breeding status, we

found 5 nesting pairs. Regarding oystercatcher and stone-curlews, their presence in the area during the breeding

period is a possible argument for positive breeding status. Strong arguments to support this came from the

observation of one pair of oystercatchers mating on a gravel island in the Siret River. The stone-curlews were

heard during breeding period in the area researched. These observations complete the few knowledge about the

species distribution in Romania.

Keywords: oystercatcher, stone curlew, little tern, breeding, Lower Siret River, Romania.

Rezumat. Scoicarul (Haematopus ostralegus), pasărea ogorului (Burhinus oedicnemus) și chiara mică

(Sternula albifrons) în Lunca Siretului Inferior – dovezi în privina cuibăritului. Pe perioada a doi ani de

studiu am adunat date referitoare la cuibăritul a trei specii rare de păsări: scoicarul (Haematopus ostralegus),

pasărea ogorului (Burhinus oedicnemus) și chiara mică (Sternula albifrons) în Aria Specială de Protecție

Avifaunistică Lunca Siretului Inferior. Din cele trei specii, doar chira mica este citată ca specie cuibăritoare în

regiunea Moldovei, la est de zona studiată (cu doar un cuib cunoscut). În Lunca Siretului Inferior am putut

identifica 5 perechi cuibăritoare. Referitor la scoicar și pasărea ogorului, prezența lor constană în perioada de

cuibărire în zona de studiu rerezintă un argument în favoarea statutului de cuibăritoare. Argumente solide în acest

sens au venit prin observarea unei perechi de scoicari în ritual de împerechere pe o insulă de prundiș din râul Siret.

De asemenea, pasărea-ogorului a fost reperată auditiv în numeroase rânduri în periada de cuibărit. Aceste

observații completează puținele cunoștințe referitoare la distribuția speicilor în România.

Cuvinte cheie: scoicar, pasărea ogorului, chiră mica, Lunca Siretului Inferior, România.

Introduction

Water birds and waders are among most threatened birds especially due to habitat changes. Some of them are more threatened than others, so that their populations have a

negative trend due to habitat loss. This is also the case of oystercatcher (Haematopus

ostralegus, Linnaeus, 1758), stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus, Linnaeus, 1758) and little

tern (Sternula albifrons, Christidis & Boles, 2008) (BirdLife International, 2012).

Oystercatcher and little tern are species that breed on shores, beaches and in river gravel

(Hayman et al. 1986; Fasola et al., 2002), while stone curlew prefers open habitats,

grasslands, pastures or agricultural fields (Cramp & Simmons, 1983), but also river courses

(Caccamo, 2011). In Romania, rivers have often suffered due to human intervention

Lucian Eugen Bolboacă et al.

- 26 -

through damming, concreting water courses and gravel exploitation pits that destroy the

gravel and sandy habitats. The effects of these interventions are poorly studied. Moreover,

the bird fauna of many water courses from Moldova region is not fully known. The present

paper proposes to bring new information regarding the presence and nesting potential of

oystercatcher, stone curlew and little tern in Moldova region.


Study Area

The Siret River is positioned in eastern part of Romania, it flows across the

Moldova Region, and it is the second river in terms of flow, after Prut. Along it course,

there are several Natura 2000 sites. In its southern part, close to Adjudu Vechi village downstream to its confluence with Danube the river flows through Lower Siret Valley

Meadow Special Protected Area. This SPA was designated for the nesting of 16 protected

bird species and as a resting place during migration for 11 species listed in Annex I of

Natura 2000 Bird Directive. Other 25 species listed in Annex I have a regular migration in

the area (HG 971/2011).

The study was carried out in this SPA (45°40’28.41” N; 27°25’55.95” E), an area

that covers 36.492 ha. The altitudes are between 0 and 302 m asl., the medium altitude

being of 33 m asl (Jarvis et al., 2008).

Habitat Features

The main habitats present in the site are agricultural fields – 36%, broadleaf forests – 22%, open waters – 17%, transition forests – 9%, pastures – 7%, swamps – 4%,

natural grassland, steppes – 4%, sandy beaches – 2% (EEA, 2012).

Birds Data

The observations took place in the period 2012-2014, during May to September,

with an itinerant character. In total there were 21 trips in the Middle Siret Valley Meadow.

We used both transect and fixed observation points methods (Gregory et al., 1996).

Daytime observation were done in 5 points, while night time observation in 3 (Fig. 1). For

daytime observations we used 10 x 50 binoculars and 20-60 x 65 field scope. For spatial

locations we used GPS device. In the case of nocturnal observations, we used the silent

listening method for bird species between the hours 21-24, without playback (Bibby et al.,

2000).


During our study we identified the presence and proofs for potential breeding of

two new species that are considered endangered in Romania – stone curlew and little tern,

and one considered vulnerable – oystercatcher (Munteanu, 2009).

The stone curlew was first identified in the area during night observations of 27-28

of May 2013. The species was identified by their characteristic sounds during the breeding

period (Drogonetti et al., 2013). The confirmation of the presence of the species was done

in the nights between 20-22 of June 2013 in the same location (45°42’00” N, 27°23’33” E),

when their calls could be heard again. No individual could be seen until 14 may 2014, when

we could identify three individuals in broad daylight. The habitat in which the species was recorded was gravel with scarce vegetation and mesophilic meadow.


- 27 -

Figure 1. Study area and observation points.

The little tern was observed in the study area at almost every field trip, at all the observation points with one to four individuals per point that were fishing along the water

course. The breeding confirmation of the species came on 28th of May 2013 when during

one transect for little tern nest identification we found five pairs that were nesting on a

gravel island with scarce vegetation near Condrea village, Galați County. In three of the

nests we could identify nestlings, while in two were only nesting adults.

The oystercatcher was constantly observed during our field trips, starting with the

spring of 2013, by 2-4 individuals observed. Most of these observations consist in seeing

the birds in low flight along the river or in seeing them as they feed in the gravel areas. The

confirmation of the species breeding came on 14 May 2014, when we observed one pair in

breeding ritual on a gravel island with scarce vegetation near Suraia village, Vrancea


- 28 -

County. In the same day, we observed another pair on another island about two km from

the first one. We consider a population of at least two pairs that breed in the area.

The stone curlew had an accentuated population decline across its territory in the

20th century especially because of habitat loss (Tucker & Heath 1994; Nipkow, 1997). The

conservation status in Romania is endangered, with a nesting population of 200-400

breeding pairs (Munteanu, 2009). The species is listed as breeding in Dobrogea Region,

where 80% of the breeding population is concentrated (Munteanu, 2009; Petrencu et al.,

2011). The species also breeds inland, in Olt River Meadow (Munteanu, 2009). On the

Danube course, it breeds in Ialomița Swamp (Petre et al, 2011), or in Calafat area (Marinov

& Iacovici, 2005). In Moldova region there is no record of species breeding. In literature

there is one observation of an individual in the region, also on Siret river course, on the shores of Berești Lake on 06.06.2010 (Petrencu et al, 2011). The birds observed by us

seems to be nesting, but since we could not find any nests or we did not see birds in

breeding ritual, we consider that the species is a possible nesting species in the Moldova

Region. This affirmation is sustained by the presence of several birds during the breeding

period and by their breeding characteristic sounds described by Drogonetti et al. (2013).

The riverine habitats of the area are particularly important to the species ecology, not only

that it offers them good breeding conditions, but also it ensures them the necessary food

resources (Caccamo et al., 2011).

The little tern is a species of bird that has an unfavorable conservation status in

Europe, with a population decline in eastern and northern part of the continent (Muselet,

1997). The global population is between 190000-410000 breeding pairs, while the continental one is between 35000-55000 breeding pairs. In Romania the species is

endangered, with an uncertain population, considered to be between 300-400 breeding pairs

(Munteanu, 2009). The little tern is a species that breeds especially in the Dobrogea area, in

Razelm-Sinoe Lagoon Complex, possible on the Danube upwards to Oltenia Region, and

on lower part of the Olt River (Munteanu, 2009, 2012). It used to breed Sahalin Island

(Kiss, 1971, 1985). In Moldova Region, there is only one breeding case in specialized

literature, one breeding pair in a mixed colony in Brateș Lake area, close to Prut River

confluence with Danube, in 1997 (Gache, 2002; Cazacu & Gache, 2005; Cazacu, 2006). In

rest of the region, the species is cited as rare during the passage along the Prut River (Ion et

al., 2009; Ignat & Ion, 2010).

Regarding the breeding of oystercatcher in Romania, it occurs locally at the sea

shore in Danube Delta and Razim-Sinoe Lagoon Complex. It is a rare breeding species, with a population estimated at 50-150 nesting pairs (Munteanu, 2009, 2012). During the

migration, the species can be seen especially in Dobrogea, on Black Sea shore (Muntenu,

1970, 2009; Gache, 2005), and in Danube Delta (Kiss, 1971; Petrencu et al., 2011; Ion et

al., 1984; Doroșencu et al., 2004; Ion & Pocora, 2005). In Moldova it is mentioned as a rare

species during migration in middle section of Prut river Basin (Ignat, 2009). During the

summer, the species is cited in Beleu area of the Prut River Meadow in the Republic of

Moldova (Glăvan et al., 1999), as well as in Ialomița Swamp (Petre et al., 2011), but as a

vagrant bird, not a breeding species. Our observation brings proof for breeding of the

species in Lower Siret Meadow at least for the year 2014. This is the first observation of

this kind in the Moldova Region. In the last years it seems that the species had a population

growth in Romania, correlated with an extended distribution upstream along the Danube (Munteanu, 2009), fact that could explain its occurrence in the study area.


- 29 -

All the three species are ground nesting birds. Thus they are vulnerable to

predation, as well as to flooding. The islands along the Siret Lower course provide a safe

refuge for nesting birds. However, one of the dangers that could jeopardize the breeding of

the species is the decreasing of the water flow that leads to the formation of land bridges

between islands and river bank. These bridges could be used by predators like dogs and cats

to reach the eggs and chicks. The rising of the water flow can affect birds negatively also,

by flooding their nests. Other disturbing factors observed in the area are represented by the

gravel exploitation processes that destroy the habitats, as well as house derbies pollution,

especially near the localities alongside the Siret River. Due to its nesting preferences, stone

curlews could be threatened by flocks of sheeps that graze the nearby pastures, as well as

their company dogs. The distribution of these three species is not fully known in our country

(Munteanu, 2009). Thus, our observation completes the data regarding the nesting of these

species in Romania. On the other hand, these new locations and observations could be an

argument for the species areal expansion in Romania. For confirmation of this hypothesis,

as well as to identify the variables that influences their distribution, there is a need for

extended investigations in different areas also.

Conclusions

During our study we brought new information regarding the distribution and

breeding status of three new rare species in the region of Moldova. We prove the nesting of

little stern on the islands of Siret River by finding five breeding pairs in Lower Siret Meadow Special Protected Area. The mating ritual of oystercatchers in the same area is

also a proof of their breeding status. For the first time we proof the presence of stone

curlew in Moldova. There is the possibility for the birds nesting in the study area due to the

fact that pairs were seen during the breeding period. We also recorded during the night the

characteristic sounds for the breeding period. Due to the fact that we could not see the birds

mating or we have not found any nest or chick, we cannot conclude that the birds are

breeding. Further investigations are needed to proof this. Birds in the area are exposed to

water level fluctuations, predation by domestic animals and domestic derbies pollution.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank to Petrencu Laurentiu and Viorel Pocora for their help regarding

field observations. This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391, Project – Doctoral and Postdoctoral programs of excellence

for highly qualified human resources training for research in the field of Life sciences,

Environment and Earth Science, co-financed by the European Social Fund with the

Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Study complied

with the Romanian laws.

References

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London.

Birdlife International 2012, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3, cited 26 March 2015,

www.iucnredlist.org

Caccamo, C., Pollonara, E., Baldaccini, N.E., Ghiumchi, D., 2011. Diurnal and nocturnal ranging behaviour of

Stone-curlews Burhinus oedicnemus nesting in river habitat. Ibis, 153: 707-720.


- 30 -

Cazacu, M., 2006. Fish farms as nesting sites for Chlidonias hybridus (Aves, Charadriiformes, Sternidae). North-

Western Journal of Zoology, 2 (2): 73-87.

Cazacu, M., Gache, C., 2005. Comparative observation on the hatching population of Chlidonias genus in the

Inferior Area of the Prut River. Analele Științifice ale Universității „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s.

Biologie animală, LI: 218-220.

Cramp, S., Simmons, K., 1983. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, 3, Oxford University Press, London.

Doroșencu, A., Pocora, V., Ion, C., 2004. Considerations about the observations and the performed ring putting on

birds in Fortuna-Maliuc and Vadu (The Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve). Analele Științifice ale

Universitășii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animală, LI: 303-309.

Dragonetti, M., Caccamo, C., Corsi, F., Farsi, F., Giovacchini, P., Pollonara, E., Giuchi, D., 2013. The Vocal

Repertoire of the Eurasian Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus). The Wilson journal of Ornithology,

125 (1): 34-49.

European Environment Agency (EEA), 2012. Corine Land Cover, version16 (04/2012), cited 20 May 2015,

http://www.eea.europa.eu/legal/copyright

Fasola, M., Sanchez Guzman, J.M., Roselaar, C.S. 2002. Sterna albifrons Little Tern. Journal of Birds of the

Western Palearctic, 4: 89-114.

Gache, C., 2005. Ornithological aspects on the swamp Herghelie-Mangalia (România). Scientific Annals of the

Danube Delta Institute for Research and Development, Tulcea, XI: 230-26.

Gache, C., 2002. Dinamica avifaunei în Bazinul Râului Prut / Birds fauna’s dynamic in the basin of Prut River.

Publicațiile Societății Ornitologice Române, Cluj-Napoca.

Glăvan, T., Știrbu, V., Ciubotaru, V., 1999. Contribution to the study of the avifauna in the region of Beleu Lake

(”Prutul de Jos” Reservation) Republic of Moldova. Scientific Annals of the Danube Delta Institute for

Research and Development, VII, 22-31.

Gregory, R.D., Gibbons, D.W, Donald, F.P., 1996. Bird census techniques. In: Sutherland, W.J. (Ed.), Ecological

Census Techniques. A Handbook. Cambridge University Press, 17-35.

Hayman, P., Marchant, J., Prater, A. J., 1986. Shorebirds. Croom Helm, London, 416.

Ignat, A.E., 2009. Aspecte privind biologia stărcilor și țigănușilor din zona centrală a bazinului românesc al

Prutului / Aspects concerning the herons and glossy ibis biology from Romanian central basin of the

Prut River. Editura Universității ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, 254.

Ion, C., Pocora, V., 2005. The composition of the avifauna on the Lupilor Ground in the migratory period. Analele

Științifice ale Universitășii ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animală, LI: 205-216.

Ion, I., Webber, P., Stănescu, D., 1984. Aspecte ale migrației de toamnă a păsărilor în Insula Sacalin / Aspects

regarding the birds autumn migration in Sacalin Island. Analele Științifice ale Universitătii ”Alexandru

Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animal, LI: 13-15.

Ion, C., Zamfirescu, Ș.R., Ion, I., 2009. Aspects concerning the diversity of vertebrate fauna on the Prut Valley

Region – Arguments for a Transboundary Nature Reserve. Analele Științifice ale Universității

”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animală, LV: 199-213.

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for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org (17.05.2015)

Kiss, J.B., 1971. Date preliminarii asupra ornitofaunei insulei Sachalin și rolul ei în migrație / Preliminary data

regarding bird fauna of Sachalin Island and its role in the migration. Ed. Peuce, Tulcea, 479-494.

Kiss, J.B., 1985. Câteva specii de păsări mai rare, observate în Dobrogea de Nord, în perioada 1980-1982 / Several

rare bird species observed in Northern Dobrogea in the period 1980-1982. Delta Dunării, Studii și

comunicări ecologice, Tulcea, 1: 103-108.

Marinov, M., Iacovici, E., 2005. Avifauna profile types within the Danube Floodplain Calafat – Călărași sector.

Scientific Annuals of the Danube Delta Institute, 11: 45-49.

Munteanu, D. 1970. Date aupra avifaunei litoralului Românesc al Mării Negre (Agigea-Techirghiol-Eforie) / Data

regarding bird fauna of Romanian Black Sea Shore (Agigea-Techirghiol-Eforie). Lucrările stațiunii de

cercetări Biologice, geologice și geografice ”Stejarul”, 3: 151-169.

Munteanu, D., 2009. Păsări rare, vulnerabile și periclitate în România / Rare, vulnerable and endangered species

in Romania. Ed. Alma Mater, Cluj-Napoca.

Munteanu, D., 2012. Conspectul sistematic al avifaunei clocitoare din România / The Systematic summary of

breeding bird species from Romania. Ed. Alma Mater, Cluj-Napoca.

Muselet, D., 1997. Little tern Sterna albifrons. In Hagemeijer, E.J.M., Blair, M.J. (Eds.), The EBCC Atlas of

European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T & A.D. Poyser, London, 360-361.

Nipkow, M., 1997. Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus). In: Hagemeijer, E.J.M., Blair, M.J. (Eds.), The EBCC

Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T & A.D. Poyser, London.

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http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/


- 31 -

Petre, C.V., Petre T., Petre C.M., 2011. Ornithological study of the Special Protected Area ”Benturi” (Balta

Ialomiței Area, România). Travaux du Muséum National d`Histoire Naturelle „Grigore Antipa”,

București, LI: 161-169.

Petrencu, L., Ion, C., Baltag, E., 2011. The Distribution of Wader Birds in Eastern Romania. Analele Științifice ale

Universitătii ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animală, LI: 63-79.

Tucker, G.M., Heath, M.H., 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Birdlife International, Cambridge,

U.K. 351.

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26 March 2015, www.iucnredlist.org

Hotărârea Guvernului 971/2011 pentru modificarea și completarea Hotărârii Guvernului. 1284/24 October 2007

privind declararea Ariilor de Protecție Specială Avifaunistică, București.

http://www.iucnredlist.org/


- 33 -

COLONIAL BEHAVIOUR OF SOME CICONIIFOMERS SPECIES

IN THE LOWER PRUT RIVER BASIN

(REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA)

Constantin COJAN1, Larisa BOGDEA1 and Carmen GACHE2

1 Institute of Zoology Academy of Sciences of Moldova, 1, Academy str., Chișinău, 2028, Republic of Moldova,

[email protected]; [email protected]

2 “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Carol I Av., 11A, 700506, [email protected]

Abstract. We present the results of our fieldworks carried out on breeding Ciconiiformes species within mixed or

mono-specific colonies in the period 2006-2012, on some lakes from the Lower Prut sector, representing a Ramsar

site in Republic of Moldova – Manta Lake, Iezer Lake (Colibasi) and scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut". In

the last site, the suitable nesting habitat is reduced, making held the nest natural setting, but also gives a very good

coexistence of inhabiting species from the area. The mixed colonies consist of the species Ardea alba, Ardea

cinerea, Phalacrocorax carbo, occupying the central area of colony, but also the species Plegadis falcinellus,

Platalea leucorodia and Egretta garzetta, present in the peripheries of the colony. On the lakes, the compact reed

beds prevail, so, the Ciconiiforms species form large mixed colonies, placed horizontally.

Keywords: ciconiiforms, breeding colonies, spatial distribution.

Rezumat. Comportamentul colonial al unor specii de ciconiiforme în bazinul inferior al Prutului (Republica

Moldova). Prezentăm rezultele unei actitivități de studiu pe teren ce a urmărit aspecte ale ecologiei și etologiei

unor specii de ciconiiforme pe durata sezonului de reproducere în intervalul 2006-2012. Studiul a fost realizat în

perimetrul mai multor lacuri din sectorul inferior al Prutului, având statut de sit Ramsar pe teritoriul Republicii

Moldova: lacurile Manta, Iezer (Colibași) și rezervația științifică "Prutul Inferior". In perimetrul rezervației "Prutul

Inferior", habitatul favorabil cuibăritului diverselor specii de stârci este redus, limitând posibilitățile de instalare a

cuiburilor, dar prezintă un loc propice urmăririi relațiilor interspecifice și conviețuirii acestor specii într-un

teritoriu de reproducere. Coloniile mixte sunt formate din perechi aparținând speciilor Ardea alba, Ardea cinerea

și Phalacrocorax carbo, ocupând partea centrală a coloniei, dar și din specii ca Plegadis falcinellus, Platalea

leucorodia și Egretta garzetta, prezente la marginile coloniilor de reproducere. Pe cele două lacuri investigate,

stufărișurile compacte acoperă suprafețe întinse, favorizând dezvoltarea pe orizontală a coloniilor de ciconiiforme.

Cuvinte cheie: ciconiiforme, colonii de reproducere, distribuție spațială.

Introduction

The avian social systems during the breeding season can be classified into three

major types: territorial, cooperative or communal, and colonial. Two major strategies of

reproduction and spatial occupation in birds are recognized: territorial and colonial). The

coloniality is the second most common type of avian social organization after territoriality (Brown & Bomberger-Brown, 2001). Colonial nesting occurs in most avian groups; Lack

estimate that 13-14% of the world’s birds are colonial (Lack, 1968).

Also the colony may serve as a regular feeding information centre, allowing each

member to follow more successful foragers in looking for the food (Ward & Zahavi, 1973).

Krebs (1974, 1978) considers that the coloniality in the Ciconiiforms is an adaptation

concerned with food exploitation.

Within some species the whole range of sociality can be found, dependent on

habitat characteristics, to which differences in food predictability are usually linked.

Constantin Cojan et al.

- 34 -

Methods of Study

Our study was done on some lakes in the Lower Prut sector (Ramsar site) in

Republic of Moldova: Manta Lake, Iezer Lake (Colibasi) and in the scientific natural

reserve "Lower Prut" (Fig. 1). These lakes have connections with the Prut River,

comprising open waters, floodplains and swampy areas and channels. The study covers the

period 2006-2012.

In the scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut", the aquatic and swamp habitats are

predominantly composed of willow, poplar and crack willow. On the Manta Lake and Iezer

Lake (Colibasi), the compact reed beds prevail.

The observations were done with a binocular Yukon 8-24x50 and one telescope

100x1000.

Figure 1. Map of the study area in the Lower Prut River.


- 35 -


The nesting site selection and installation in the case of the Ciconiiforms attend to

it is for male, which it does with great prudence. If there are more favourable places for

installing nest, then the choice is made over several days, time which must be verified if

still contenders, if predators are around, if the rain might ruin his nest, etc. Once set the nest

location and position in the colony, the whole birds’ activity is focused around building and

its arrangement. If the breeding sites are scarce, then give struggles, harassment, grazing

flight, bustle of wings, etc.

In the summer of 2006 and spring of 2009, we noticed that on a nest already

occupied by one pair of Ardea alba, another foreign couple belonging to the same species

was trying to occupy. There was a scuffle attended by most of the pairs in the colony and, so definitely, the intruders were removed from the nest.

The males do the most of work as they bring the material and the females remain

in the nest all day and do the construction of nest. The nest position is located at the limit of

150-180 cm to 290 cm height. The Ciconiiforms’ nest is built of twigs of Salix, Populus,

Rumex, Juncus and lined with green aquatic plants, such as: Phragmytes, Typha,

Vallisneria, Sagittaria, etc. The diameter of nest ranges from 71.9 to 87.2 cm and depth of

10-18 cm.

Ardea alba nests in colonies that can be mono-specific when the colony is

composed only of species of Ardea alba and mixed (Averin & Ganea, 1970; Papadopol &

Tălpeanu, 1979; Ignat, 2009) when the colony is formed both specimens of Ardea alba, as

well as other heron species, like: Egretta garzetta, Ardeola ralloides, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardea cinerea, Phalacrocorax carbo, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, Plegadis

falcinellus, etc. Mostly nests are placed often on old tall trees tall of genus Salix and

Populus species, and in the small willows (Ignat, 2009).

Within the colonies from the scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut" we were

studying the preference for tree species for the place of their nests. For the Great Egret -

Ardea alba nests’ we found that from the 139 inventoried nests, 107 nests were placed in

willows. In the canopy of poplar trees, were counted 29 nests, while in the sea buckthorn

were found only 3 nests. In the years 1960-1968 the Great Egret nestled in mixed colonies

with purple heron or spoonbill placed in reed beds, rarely on trees (Averin & Ganea, 1970).

For the nesting species of Ciconiiforms, the both vertically and horizontally

structure of the colonies reveals a high ecological plasticity of the species. For example, the

compact reed beds prevail on the Manta Lake and on the areas around the Iezer Lake near the Colibasi village, so, the herons species especially spoonbills, glossy ibises and herons,

set up large inter-specific colonies, placed horizontally. A trend to the vertical placement of

nests in these territories was observed in the year 2012, when the spring flood waters were

high. But in the end, nests installed to greater heights than the water level were

subsequently used as places for rest and dressing of adult birds during periods of recreation.

We can confirm, as such habitats the horizontal nesting is specific and fight for the location

of nests in the central part of the colony is given with great harassment.

In the horizontal colonies, the central part is occupied by Ardea cinerea and Ardea

alba and the outskirts of colonies are occupied most often by Plegadis falcinellus and

Platalea leucorodia. Very rarely, it has been observed nesting association with Nycticorax

nycticorax, Ardeola ralloides and Ixobrychus minutus. Large species like the Grey Heron, Great Egret and Spoonbill need more space for landing. Within the colonies on Manta Lake

Constantin Cojan et al.

- 36 -

(Fig. 2), the species Ardea alba was dominant species (32.1%) and nested along with Ardea

cinerea (16.1%), Platalea leucorodia (7.15%), Nycticorax nycticorax (25%) și

Phalacrocorax carbo (19.6%).

In the scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut", the aquatic and swamp habitats are

predominantly composed by willow, poplar and crack willow, so, the colonies of

Ciconiiforms species are placed vertically and mixed. The suitable nesting habitat is

reduced, making held the nest natural setting, but also gives a very good coexistence of

inhabiting species from the area. In the colony of the scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut"

we had found nests of Plegadis falcinellus (22.4%), Phalacrocorax carbo (9.18%),

Phalacrocorax pygmeus (4.08%), Platalea leucorodia (7.14%), Egretta garzetta (17.34),

Ardea cinerea (6.12%) and Ardea purpurea (3.06%).

0

10

20

30

40

Ard

ea c

iner

ea

Pla

tale

a le

uco

rodi

a

Nyc

ticor

ax n

yctic

orax

Pha

lacr

ocor

ax c

arbo

Egr

etta

gar

zetta

Ple

gadi

s fa

lcin

elus

Ard

eola

ral

oide

s

Pha

lacr

ocor

ax p

ygm

eus

Ard

ea p

urpur

eaArd

ea a

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Manta

"Lower Prut"

Manta Colibasi "Lower Prut"

Figure 2. Species diversity and the percentage of species in colonies in the Lower Prut River.

On the study of the complexity of nests’ places in the inter-specific colonies there

was found that the same species preferred the central areas every time in this type of

colonies. The associated species in mixed colonies that are not present in the colonies

organised in horizontal plan are Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola ralloides and Ixobrychus

minutus. These species, usually, placed their nests in the central area of the colonies,

especially near the herons’ nests that are greater. It was observed that some nests of Ardea

cinerea can be joined with one or more nests Ixobrychus minutus or Ardeola ralloides.

Such "symbiosis" is not randomly, because the larger species of Ciconiiforms are use to announce immediately, through shrill cries of alarm, the presence of a predator or when an

outsider entered the colony. While the other species associated colonies are retreating or

manage to fly the nest in a timely manner, thus ensuring a greater security nests.

Throughout the period of study on the ecology and behaviour of heron group

species, we have seen constantly their association with other species during the nesting, but

also a feeding as of their trophic niches intersect or overlap often with other species.


- 37 -

Throughout the study we found that the qualitative and quantitative composition of

associations of individuals had not the same values in the all monitoring points, due the

differences in the characteristic present habitats and the level of feeding resources offer that

can affect the population. Through the calculating of ecological similarity index (Ss,

Sörensen index), reflecting the degree of similarity between the two associations (groups of

species/biocenosis), there it was obtained the closest similarity between Lake Manta and the

scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut" (Ss = 0.61). The compact reed beds of these two

areas and the clumps of willows provide good shelter and security for the future of colony.

The minimum of similarity was found between Manta Lake and the swamps from

Valeni (Ss = 0.36), because on the Manta Lake, the security and the ecological conditions

of heron’s colony make it a safer location, while in Valeni area (it is a part of Beleu Lake), these birds’ colonies are placed on isolated willows, while the reed beds are not large and

compact, making them vulnerable to predators. The average values similarity between

colonies we obtained from Valeni and scientific natural reserve "Lower Prut" (Ss = 0.42).

Conclusions The advantages of mixed breeding herons’ colonies to individuals include

minimizing nest position and food competition, while maximizing anti-predator behaviour,

social interactions and information transfer.

The competition for food is offset because the colony is acting as an information

centre whereby unsuccessful foragers follow successful ones to patchy, ephemeral food

sources. We can say that such coexistence is not randomly because we found that the large

species of Ciconiiforms play the key-role to announce the appearance of any intruder in the

proximity of colony.

References

Averin, I., Ganea I., 1970. Ptitsi Moldavii. Știința, Chișinău, R. Moldova.

Brown, C.R., Bomberger-Brown, M. 2001. Avian Coloniality. Progress and problems. Current Ornithology, 16: 1-

82.

Krebs, J.R., 1974. Colonial nesting and social feeding as strategies for the explotation of food resources in Great

Blue herons Ardea heroides. Behaviour, 51: 99-134.

Krebs, J.R., 1978. Colonial nesting in birds, with special refrence to the Ciconiiformes. In: Sprunt, A., Ogden,

J.C., Winkler S., Wading birds, National Audubon Society, New York, USA, 299-314.

Ignat, A., 2009. Aspecte privind biologia stârcilor, lopătarilor și țigănușilor din zona centrală a bazinului

românesc al Prutului. “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University Press, Iasi, Romania.

Lack, D., 1968. Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. Methuen, London, UK.

Papadopol, A., Tălpeanu, M., 1979. Considérations phénologiques et écologiques sur les Oiseaux du départment

d’Ilfov (Roumanie). Travaux du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle “Grigore Antipa”, 20: 423-440.

Ward, P., Zahavi, A., 1973. The importance of certain assemblages of birds as “information-centres” for food-

finding. Ibis, 115 (4): 517-534.


- 39 -

BREEDING DENSITIES OF TAWNY OWL (STRIX ALUCO) IN

EASTERN MOLDOVA REGION (ROMANIA)

Lucian Eugen BOLBOACĂ¹, Elena ARTEM² and Vlad AMARGHIOALEI²

¹ Department of Biology, Ecology and Geography, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Informatics,

“Vasile Goldiș” Western University of Arad, Romania, [email protected]

² Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Romania

Abstract. Tawny owl (Strix aluco) is the most common owl species in Romanian forests, but, as with all owl

species, it is poorly studies. During a three years period we collected data regarding the breeding densities of the

species in main forest located in Eastern Moldova region, between Siret and Prut Region. The highest densities

were of 10.2 bp/10 sqKm in old-growth large forests, while the lowest of 3.2 bp/10 sqKm in fragmented river

meadows. The medium densities of 8.3 bp / 10 sqKm suggest a total population of 3000-4000 breeding pairs in the

forests of Eastern Moldova region. Thus we consider that the official estimation of the Tawny Owl population in

Romania to be underestimated.

Keywords: Tawny Owl, Eastern Romania forests, population, densities.

Rezumat. Densitățiile perechilor cuibăritoare ale huhurezului mic (Strix aluco) în partea estică a Moldovei

(România). Huhurezul mic (Strix aluco) este cea mai comună specie de răpitoare de noapte, însă, la fel ca celelalte

specii ale ordinului, este slab studiată. Timp de trei ani am colectat date referitoare la densitatea perechilor

cuibăritoare ale speciei în principalele corpuri forestiere din estul Moldovei, din zona situată între râurile Prut și

Siret. Cele mai mari densități au fost de 10,2 perechi cuibăritoare / 10 kilometri pătrați, în păduri bătrâne, de mari

dimensiuni, în timp ce cele mai scăzute, de 3,2 pc/10 Kmp în lunci fragmentate. Densitatea medie de 8,3 pc/10

Kmp sugerează o populație totală de 3000-4000 de perechi cuibăritoare de huhurez mic în pădurile din partea de

est a României. Astfel considerăm că populația națională a speciei este subestimată.

Cuvinte cheie: huhurez mic, păduri, estul României, populații, densități.

Introduction

Owls are a group of understudied birds, mainly due to their nocturnal and cryptic

habit. In Romania there is a lack of studies regarding the distribution and abundance of

even the most common owl species.

Tawny owl (Strix aluco) is a medium-sized owl that inhabits mainly wooded areas.

In Europe it is considered the most common owl species (König et al., 2008). Its

distribution ranges in Western Palearctic, from Portugal in the west to western Siberia in the east, and from Scandinavia in the north to Greece, Sicily, and locally Northern African

Coast. Also present in Asia Minor and Middle East, to the Caspian Sea, and Himalayans of

N Pakistan and Kashmir (König et al., 2008). In Romania, the species can be found all

over the country în large forests, close to clearings, meadows, forest edges. It prefers lower

altitudes, but can be found în the mountain regions as well (Munteanu, 2012).

The population in Romania is last estimated to 6000-12000 breeding pairs

(Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, 2015). However, there are different estimates

of the population according to different sources. The present study shows the Tawny Owl

densities in different forests situated between rivers Prut and Siret, in Eastern Romania.


- 40 -

Material and methods

Study Area

The study area is situated in the eastern part of Romania. The northern limit is

represented by the border with Ukraine, to the east the Prut River, to the south the Danube,

while in west Siret river. The land use in the area is mostly represented by a mosaic of

agricultural fields (56.81%), natural and artificial forests (14.18%), pasture and herbaceous

vegetation association (12.64%) and other surfaces surfaces (14.37%) (Corine Land Cover,

2006). The forests are represented by broadleaf deciduous species. The species of trees

most common are oak (Querqus robur, Querqus petrea) and Beech (Fagus sylvatica). The

total surface of the forests is 3185.537 sqKm. Most of these forests are fragmented, except

for those from the Suceava Plateau and Central Moldavian Plateau, that are more compact.

Figure 1. Study area`s main forests and observation points.


- 41 -

Data Collecting

The data was gathered in the period 2012-2015 in the period August to November

and March to May. We used playback protocol as a method of censusing the tawny owls.

This method implies the broadcasting in a fixed observation station of the sounds of the

species, followed by a period of silent listening for the calls of the wild birds. During the

surveys, we censused both Tawny and Ural Owls. Thus we first broadcast for a period of

two minutes the calls of the smaller, inferior competitor (Vrh & Vrezec, 2006; Kajtoch et

al., 2015) Tawny Owl, followed by a period of 5 minutes of silent listening (Zuberogoitia

& Campos, 1998). The observation started half of hour after the sunset and lasted until the

midnight. The data was collected during the calm night, without precipitations or strong

winds (Redpath, 1994). The responses were recorded on a standard form sheet. The distance and the direction of the calling bird was appreciated and marked on a map. The

playback station were positioned in general more that 1.5 km away from each other,

although in some cases, depending on the terrain it was reduce to no less than 800 m,

making sure we avoided the double countings. All the data was then converted into a GIS

Database. We considered a buffer area represented by the surface within 500 m radius

from the observation points (Jedrezejewski et al., 1996; Vrezec & Savelić, 2005). This

gives a survey area of 0.78 sqKm. The birds that were considered to respond from a greater

distance than 500 m were excluded from the calculation. A total of 132 observation points

(Fig. 1) were checked at least twice. The densities (territories - breeding pairs / 10 sqKm)

for each forest body were calculated as the ratio between number of territories x 10 and

sum of survey areas (Vrezec, 2000; Vrezec & Saveljć, 2005).


During our study we found a number of 93 breeding pairs of Tawny Owl. We

confirmed that it is the most common owl in wooded areas. We found the species in a large

variety of forest habitats, from old growth beech and oak forests to younger ones, and from

large forest bodies to small ones. The altitudes at which we found breeding Tawny owls

varies from 70 m asl in the Lower Siret Valley to 483 m in Suceava Plateau. Although the

species is considered a lowland species, the difference in altitudes in the study area are low,

so we did not observed any preference for an altitudinal range.

The highest densities breeding Tawny owls were recorded in the Bîrnova-

Repedea, Talpaia-Scărișoarei (10.2 bp/sqKm), and Floreanu-Frumușica-Ciurea forests

(10.1 bp/sqKm). These forest are characterized by a large surface, lower degree of fragmentation and a forest management that offers patches of old growth as well as glades

in which tawny owl can hunt. In two of these forest the presence of Ural owl (Strix

uralensis) and Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) has been recorded, and at least for the Ural – Tawny

owl interactions it has been shown that the last suffers from exclusion from the larger

competitor (Bolboacă et al., 2013), it seems that the densities still remains high, indicating

the good quality of the forest that can sustain such a diversity of predators.

The lowest densities of Tawny owl were recorded in Mircești – Middle Siret

Valley and Lower Siret Valley (3.2 bp/sqKm). These two areas are characterized by narrow

meadows that follows the river course. Main forest vegetation in these areas is made of

willow (Salix sp.) and poplar (Populus sp.) trees. In fragmented areas with a lot of open

space and groups of trees, the species it is known to have larger territories, thus the densities of breeding pairs are lower (Redpath, 1995; Salvati et al., 2002). This habitat


- 42 -

structure is characteristic for the Siret Valley, so it is no surprise for the lower densities of

the target species. We also confirmed the breeding of the Tawny Owl in small forests,

though since we had only one observation station per forest patch that covered entire area,

the density estimations are of little value.

The medium density for the eastern Moldova region is 8.3 breeding pairs/sqkm

(Table 1). Thus it is higher than in Montenegro (Vrezec & Savelji, 2005), Switzerland

(Penteriani & Pinchera, 1990), Spain (Zuberogoitia & Campos, 1998), Poland (Wiącek et

al., 2010) and Finland (Solonen, 1996), but lower than those registered in Italy (Ranazzi et

al., 2001), Austria (Dvorak et al., 1993), and Great Britain (Hirons, 1985). During our

study, we also recorded the breeding of Tawny Owl in urban areas. We found seven

breeding pairs in the parks and forested areas of Iași city.

Table 1. Tawny owl densities in the study area.

No Forests No. of

stations

Breeding

pairs

Densities

(bp/10sqKm)

1 Oroftiana-Suharău 5 4 10 2 Șaua Bucecea-Dersca 6 6 5.6 3 Dealu Mare-Hârlău 19 16 10 4 Tătăruși-Homița-Codrii Pașcanilor 9 3 4.2

5 Mircești-Middle Siret Valley 4 1 3.2 6 Floreanu-Frumușica-Ciurea 21 19 10.1 7 Bârnova-Repedea 21 10 10.2 8 Gâdinți 4 3 9.6 9 Covasna-Buduros-Văscănici 3 2 8.5

10 Bunești-Mălinești 5 2 5.1 11 Dobrina-Huși 6 5 10 12 Gădeasa-Lipovești 3 1 4.2 13 Porcerului-Răchițelei-Coteni 3 1 4.2

14 Talpaia-Scărișoarei 4 4 10.2 15 Horga-Zorleni 7 4 7.3 16 Corbița-Buciumeni 2 1 6.4 17 Lower Siret Valley 8 2 3.2 18 Uricani 1 1 N/A 19 Roșcani 1 1 N/A

Iași city N/A 7 N/A

Total/Mean 132 86 + 7 8.3

Regarding the population estimates, we consider that in eastern Romania, in the

area situated between Prut and Siret rivers, there are between 3000 and 4000 breeding pairs.

The total forest surface in the study area is of 3185.537 sqKm, which represents approximately 10.21% of the forests of Romania. The population estimates in the study

area represents between 50 and 25% of the in the country’s estimated population of 6000

and 12000 pairs (Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, 2015). Thus we consider the

20000-60000 breeding pairs estimated population by BirdLife International (2015) in the

period 2001-2013 closer to reality, though the quality of the data was poor.

For a better evaluation of the Ural Owl population and the influences of habitat

structure further studies are needed.


- 43 -

Conclusions

The Tawny Owl is the most common forest owl in the study area. The breeding

densities are ranging from 10.2 bp/10 sqKm to 3.2 bp/ 10 sqKm, with a medium of 8.3 bp /

10 sqKm. We identified 7 pairs breeding in the urban areas of Iași city, as well as in small

forest patches. The estimated population of Ural Owl in eastern part of Moldova region is

3000-4000 breeding pairs. Further studies regarding the species are needed.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank to Ion Constantin, Spătăreanu Adrian, Baltag Emanuel Ștefan,

Petrencu Laurentiu, Viorel Pocora and Fasolă Mătăsaru Lucian for their help regarding

field observations. This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391, Project – Doctoral and Postdoctoral programs of excellence

for highly qualified human resources training for research in the field of Life sciences,

Environment and Earth Science, co-financed by the European Social Fund with the

Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Study complied

with the Romanian laws.

References

BirdLife International, 2015. European Red List of Birds. Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the

European Communities, cited 20 August 2015, http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22725469/0

Bolboacă, L.E., Baltag, E.S., Pocora, V., Ion, C., 2013. Habitat selectivity of sympatric Tawny Owl (Strix aluco)

and Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) in hill forests from north-eastern Romania. Analele științifice ale

Universității ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași, s. Biologie animala, LI: 69-76.

Corine Land Cover 2006, version 13 (02/2010), http://www.eea.europa.eu

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maps/data/corine-land-cover-2006-raster

Dvorak, M., Ranner, A., Berg, H.M., 1993. Atlas der Brutvögel Österreichs. Umweltbundesamt, Wien.

Hirons, G.J.M., 1985. The effects of territorial behaviour on the stability and dispersion of Tawny owl (Strix

aluco) populations. Journal of Zoology, London, 1 (B): 21-48.

Jedrzejewski, W., Jedrzejewska, B., Szymura, A., Zub, K., 1996. Tawny owl (Strix aluco), predation in a pristine

deciduous forest (Bialowie|a National Park, Poland). Journal of Animal Ecology, 65: 105-120.

Kajtoch, Ł., Żmihorski, M., Wieczorek, P., 2015. Habitat displacement effect between two competing owl species

in fragmented forests. Population Ecology, 57: 517-527.

König, C., Weick, F., Becking, J.- H., 2008. Owls of the World. Second Edition. Christopher Helm.

Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests, 2015. Atlas al speciilor de păsări de interes comunitar din România,

cited 20 August 2015, http://monitorizareapasarilor.cndd.ro/documents/Atlasul-Pasarilor-2015.pdf

Munteanu, D., 2012. Systematic epitome of nesting bird fauna in Romania. Ed. Alma Mater.

Penteriani, V., Pinchera, F., 1990. Censimento di una popolazione di Allocco, Strix aluco, in un massiccio

montuoso dell’Appennino Centrale (Abruzzo). Rivista italiana di Ornitologia, 60: 20-28.

Ranazzi, L., Manganaro, A., Pucci, L., Salvati, L., 2001, High densities of the Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) in mature

deciduous forests of Latium (central Italy). Buteo, 12: 111-118.

Redpath, S.M., 1994. Censusing Tawny Owls Strix aluco by the use of imitation calls. Bird Study, 41, 192-198.

Redpath, S.M., 1995. Impact of habitat fragmentation on activity and hunting behavior in the tawny owl, Strix

aluco. Behavioral Ecology, 6 (4): 410-415.

Salvati, L., Manganaro, A., Ranazzi, L., 2002. Wood quality and the Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) in different forest

types of Central Italy. Omis Svecica, 12: 47-51.

Solonen, T., 1996. Patterns and variations in the structure of forest bird communities in southern Finland. Ornis

Fennica, 73: 12-26.

Zuberogoitia, I., Campos, L.F., 1998. Censusing owls in large areas: a comparison between methods. Ardeola, 45:

47-53.

Vrezec, A., 2000. Vpliv nekaterih ekoloških dejavnikov na razširjenost sov (Strigidae) na Krimu. Diplomsko delo,

Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniška fakulteta, Oddelek za biologijo, Ljubljana.

Vrezec, A., Saveljić, D., 2005. Breeding density of Tawny Owl Strix aluco territories in montane forests of

Mountain Bjelasica (Montenegro). Ciconia, 14: 41-47.

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Vrh, P, Vrezec, A., 2006. Interspecific territorial vocal activity of the Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) towards Tawny

Owl (Strix aluco), sympatric owl competitor: a playback experiment. Razprave IV. Razreda SAZU,

XLVII (3): 99-105.

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19, 1039-1043.


- 45 -

RARETIES BIRD SPECIES AND THE ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT

IN WETLANDS FROM ISACCEA AREA (ROMANIA)

Elena ARTEM and Carmen GACHE

“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Carol I Av., 11A, 700506, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Our investigated area is part of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, but just one from visited lakes

(Saon, Rotundu, Telincea and Gasca) has protection status, being strictly protected area – Rotundu Lake. Our

study was started in 2012 till the spring of 2015, permitting us to record 129 bird species. From these, 91 are

breeding species in the area. We recorded 4 globally threatened species: Aythya nyroca and Microcarbo pygmeus

are breeding species in the area while Branta ruficollis and Pelecanus crispus appear in passage. We found 41 bird

species included in the Annexe 1 of Birds’ Directive: 25 are breeding species in these wetlands, some of them with

significant effectives, while the other use the area like feeding territory or during the migration time (Milvus

migrans, Haliaeetus albicilla or Falco vespertinus). During the migration time, the waterfowls appear in flocks of

hundred and thousand individuals. The identified risk factors are: habitats’ degradation through damming and

draining works, agricultural practices, hunting (especially, in the winter, when we recorded the presence of Branta

ruficollis), fishing practices and uncontrolled tourism in the area.

Keywords: Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, bird fauna, anthropogenic impact.

Rezumat. Specii de păsări rare si impactul antropogenic in ariile umede din zona Isaccea (Romania). Teritoriul investigat face parte din Rezervația Biosferei Delta Dunării, însă doar lacul Rotundu dintre lacurile

studiate (Saon, Rotundu, Telincea și Gâsca) are statut de zonă strict protejată. Studiul nostru s-a desfășurat în

perioada 2012-2015, de-a lungul căreia am inventariat 129 de specii de păsări. Dintre acestea, 91 sunt specii care

cuibăresc în zonă. Menționăm prezența a 4 specii periclitate la nivel global: Aythya nyroca și Microcarbo pygmeus

clocitoare în zona cercetată, în timp ce Branta ruficollis și Pelecanus crispus apar în pasaj. De asemeni, 41 de

specii sunt incluse in Anexa 1 a Directivei Păsări: 25 de specii cuibăresc în aceste zone umede, unele cu efective

semnificative, în timp ce unele specii folosesc această arie ca teritorii de hrănire sau ca loc de popas în timpul

migrației (Milvus migrans, Haliaeetus albicilla și Falco vespertinus). În perioada migrației, speciile acvatice apar

în stoluri de sute și mii de indivizi. Factorii de risc identificați sunt: degradarea habitatelor prin lucrări de îndiguire

și desecare, extinderea terenurilor cultivate și folosirea pesticidelor, vânătoare (mai ales în timpul iernii, când a

fost înregistrată prezența speciei Branta ruficollis), activitățile de pescuit și turismul necontrolat.

Cuvinte cheie: Rezervația Biosferei Delta Dunării, avifauna, impact antropic.

Introduction

The Danube River forms a large pre-deltaic area starting from Galati city point that

is also part of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. The investigated lakes - Saon,

Rotundu, Telincea and Gasca – are situated in this pre-deltaic area, in the nearest vicinity of

Isaccea town (Radulescu & Vladimirov, 2007). Rotundu Lake has status of integrated

protection area, covering a total surface about 228 hectares, being connected through

channels with the other three lakes. All the lakes are part of the Danube River valley, receiving water directly from the river, especially during the flooding spring period. The

vegetation represents a mosaic of habitats – from large open waters to the compact reed

beds (65% from the lakes’ area) and marshes, surrounded by humid and dry meadows, with

clumps of old willows on the shores and isolated bushes areas. Large cultivated lands and

Elena Artem & Carmen Gache

- 46 -

orchards are present in the vicinity of lakes, while, not very far away, exist some mixed

deciduous forests.

The climate is temperate-continental, with strong and cold winters, respectively,

hot and dry summers. The dominant winds are from south – south-east, coming with

abundant rainfalls, respectively, from west direction, being very dry winds.

There not exists any ornithological published study related to these lakes, despite

the importance of this perimeter for bird fauna’s diversity. We found just few ambiguous

and superficial references to the birds’ presence in the region of Isaccea (Ciochia &

Negrutiu, 1998; Munteanu, 2004).

Methods of Study Our field study was done starting from the spring of 2012 till the May of 2015,

using the transect monitoring and fixed point survey methods, while for the nocturnal birds

and passerines group, we used also the calling activity of males. The monitoring transects

followed the western shores of lakes (Fig. 1), while the fixed points allowed us to have a

good image of birds’ population, especially, during the migration and wintering periods.

Figure 1. Map of the study area – transects and fixed points.


The bird fauna’s list for the investigated lakes perimeters and its vicinities includes

129 species (Table 1), 91 being breeding species and other 8 probably or irregular breeding

species in the area. The given effectives represent the minimum and maximum breeding

pairs recorded during the years, respectively, the minimum and the maximum effective

recorded in one day of fieldwork observation during the migration or wintering time.

Between these species, we notice the presence of six globally threatened bird

species: Branta ruficollis, Aythya nyroca, Microcarbo pygmeus, Pelecanus crispus,

Haliaeetus albicilla and Circus macrourus. Three of them are breeding species in the area


- 47 -

(Aythya nyroca, Microcarbo pygmeus and Haliaeetus albicilla). For Romania, the last

species present a very high importance, being critically endangered species; we notice the

presence of two pairs in the meadow forest from north-eastern part of the investigated

perimeter. The Ferruginous Duck is breeding with an effective of maximum 30 pairs, but

during the autumn migration we could record 2000 birds on the Saon Lake (25.09.2013).

The Pygmy Cormorant has just about 10 breeding pairs forming a small colony in some

willows near the river, but a bigger effectives use this perimeter like feeding territory in the

second part of the summer.

The Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourus) is just a passage species in the area, while

the Dalmatian Pelican use these lakes’ perimeter like feeding territory during the second

part of summer, but also in the migration time. We recorded small effectives of pelicans during the winter period, too. The Red-breasted Goose is winter visitor in the area,

appearing with small groups (no more than 20 individuals) in the large flocks of Greater

White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons); the birds use the cultivated lands with rape or

wheat like feeding territories, spending the nights on the lakes.

As we can see in the table 1, 26 of the identified bird species appear in the Red

Book of Vertebrates from Romania (Botnariuc & Tatole, 2005): 3 critically threatened

species (Pelecanus crispus, Haliaeetus albicilla and Milvus migrans), 8 threatened species

(Branta ruficollis, Netta rufina, Platalea leucorodia, Egretta garzetta, Ardea alba, Ardea

purpurea, Cicurs pygargus and Circus macrourus) and 15 vulnerable species (Aythya

nyroca, Microcarbo pygmeus, Plegadis falcinellus, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola

ralloides, Pelecanus onocrotalus, Ciconia nigra, Ciconia ciconia, Clanga pomarina, Pandion haliaetus, Buteo rufinus, Pernis apivorus, Falco vespertinus, Upupa epops and

Oenanthe pleschanka). Most of these species use to feed the investigated area during the

breeding season, migration or winter time and just 13 of them are regular, probably or

irregular breeding in this perimeter or in its vicinity.

We notice the presence of 41 bird species that are included in the Annexe 1 of

Birds’ Directive (2009/147/EC), like species that need special conservation measures

concerning their habitats in order to ensure their survival and the reproduction in their

distribution range. From these, 25 are breeding species in the investigated area and two are

probably breeding species, while the others appear during the migration or in the wintering

time. In the compact reed beds the herons form large mixed colonies (Botaurus stellaris,

Ixobrychus minutus, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola ralloides, Egretta garzetta, Ardea alba

and Ardea purpurea). The small heron species (Little Egret and Squacco Heron) present greater effectives than the others, using the willows from the shores also in order to build its

nests.

The terns (Sterna hirundo, Chlidonias hybridus and Chlidonias niger) form mixed

colonies, too, but use the small islands from the lakes or the floating leaves of aquatic

plants. The Common Tern has the greatest breeding effectives in the area, while the Black

Tern present a negative trend like everywhere in the country.

In the high sandy or clay banks from the lakes and river’s vicinity, we met mixed

colonies of Merops apiaster, Coracias garrulus and Riparia riparia, but also, solitary nests

of Alcedo atthis. In the shrubs and bushes from the cultivated lands and grasslands’

perimeter, we met two shrikes breeding species: Lanius collurio and Lanius minor but also

the Tawny Pipit (Anthus campestris) and we cannot exclude the breeding presence of the Pied Wheatear (Oenanthe pleschanka).


- 48 -

Despite the small breeding effectives presented by the raptor birds in the area,

these species use it like feeding territory, coming from the nearest Macin Mountains

National Park where they have the breeding area - Pernis apivorus, Milvus migrans and

Falco vespertinus. In the reed beds from the lakes, we recorded the presence of 13 pairs of

Circus aeruginosus. During the migration time, we met also species like Pandion haliaetus,

Clanga pomarina or Circus pygargus.

We recorded significant effectives of Pelecanus onocrotalus, Plegadis falcinellus

and Platalea leucorodia that appear in the last part of the breeding season, using this area

like feeding territory.

We counted hundreds and thousands aquatic birds and large flocks of waders

during migration time, especially, in the spring one, when the flooding phenomenon is a rule in the area, large grasslands surfaces being covered by waters and becoming stopover

and feeding territories for these birds.

The reactive behaviour of birds that are leaving a territory immediately after it

became unsuitable transforms this group of vertebrates in an important bio-indicator of the

environment’s quality. On the perimeter of the investigated lakes from Isaccea’s vicinity we

identified like risk factors for bird fauna’s diversity: habitats’ degradation through damming

and draining works, agricultural practices, hunting, fishing practices and uncontrolled

tourism in the area.

The damming and draining works followed to create new agricultural lands but the

people abandoned these lands after few years as the quality of crops decreased, so, now, a

good part of these surfaces was invaded by reed beds and aquatic vegetation stimulated by the annual spring flooding phenomenon in a kind of natural habitats’ restoration. Year by

year, the birds started to use these areas to breed or to stop and feed during the migration

time once again.

Usual, the grazing activity does not a high impact on the bird fauna, the biggest

effectives of sheep being met in the vicinity of Gasca Lake. One photovoltaic park was

developed on a length about two kilometres in this lake area, too.

One negative agricultural practices observed during our study was the expansion

of grain monocultures. Very dangerous for the birds is the use of seed treated with

insecticide and fungicide – we found wheat and maize treated seeds in the area. The

presence of some abandoned orchards in the area becomes a positive factor for bird fauna

that can find there suitable breeding habitats and a rich available food resource.

Unfortunately, the fishing and tourism activities are completely uncontrolled in the area. The fishermen use to go by boat inside the reed beds during the breeding season

disturbing the birds that, sometimes and some of them, can abandon their clutches and

chicken. The fishing nets represent another risk factor, especially for the diving ducks that

can died caught inside these nests.

The hunting was observed in the area beginning with the second part of August till

the end of winter. This is a very important disturbing factor for the birds’ presence and,

sometimes, individuals of rare and strictly protected species (for example, Branta ruficollis)

can be shot along with similar species that appear in the list of game bird species.


- 49 -

Conclusions We identified 129 bird species in the perimeters of Saon, Rotundu, Telincea and

Gasca Lakes from the pre-deltaic Danube River area.

The breeding bird fauna is represented by 91 certainly breeding species and 8

probably or irregular breeding species.

We recorded 6 globally threatened bird species (Branta ruficollis, Aythya nyroca,

Microcarbo pygmeus, Pelecanus crispus, Haliaeetus albicilla and Circus macrourus) and

41 bird species appear in the Annexe 1 of Birds’ Directive.

26 bird species are present in the Red Book of Vertebrates from Romania: 3

critically threatened species, 8 threatened species and 15 vulnerable species.

The principal risk factors for bird fauna’s diversity are: habitats’ degradation through damming and draining works, agricultural practices, hunting, fishing practices and

uncontrolled tourism in the area.

Table 1. List of recorded bird species on the lakes from Isaccea area.

No.

Species

Presence & effectives

IBA

Criteria

Birds’

Directive

Annexe

1

Romanian

Red Book

of

Vertebrates

Law no.

407/2006 Breeding

(pairs)

Migration

(individuals)

Wintering

(individuals)

1. Perdix perdix 20-30 x x B2 - - Annexe 1

2. Coturnix coturnix 25-32 x - B2 - - Annexe 1

3. Phasianus colchicus 30-35 x x - - - Annexe 1

4. Cygnus olor 15-20 300-500 5-10 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

5. Anser albifrons - - 800-1000 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

6. Anser anser 18-21 42-46 7-12 A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

7. Branta ruficollis - - 15-20 A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ T Annexe 2

8. Anas platyrhynchos 50-55 600-750 55-65 A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

9. Anas strepera 20-22 120-170 5-8 A4/B1,

B2

- - Annexe 2

10. Anas clypeata - 3-5 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

11. Anas penelope - 32-36 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

12. Anas crecca - 5-10 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

13. Anas querquedula 40-50 150-200 2-4 A4/B1,

B2

- - Annexe 1

14. Aythya fuligula - 2-4 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

15. Netta rufina - 5-10 - A4/B1,

B2

- T Annexe 2

16. Aythya nyroca 25-30 124-2000 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

17. Aythya ferina 42-48 250-300 - A4/B1,

B3

- - Annexe 1

18. Phalacrocorax carbo - 300-350 70-100 A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

19. Microcarbo pygmeus 5-10 50-100 - A1, + V Annexe 2


- 50 -

No.

Species


IBA

Criteria

Birds’

Directive

Annexe

1

Romanian

Red Book

of

Vertebrates

Law no.

407/2006 Breeding

(pairs)

Migration

(individuals)

Wintering

(individuals)

A4/B1,

B2

20. Plegadis falcinellus - 72-113 - A4/B1,B2 + V Annexe 2

21. Platalea leucorodia - 5-20 - A4/B1,

B2

+ T Annexe 2

22. Botaurus stellaris 5-10 x - B2 + - Annexe 2

23. Ixobrychus minutus 16-22 40-50 - B2 + - Annexe 2

24. Nycticorax nycticorax 18-20 50-55 - A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

25. Ardeola ralloides 31-35 62-74 - A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

26. Egretta garzetta 24-32 37-71 - A4/B1 + T Annexe 2

27. Ardea alba 15-20 60-120 4-9 A4/B1 + T Annexe 2

28. Ardea cinerea 17-21 57-89 5-10 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

29. Ardea purpurea 5-15 30-40 - B2 + T Annexe 2

30. Pelecanus onocrotalus - 250-1000 - A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

31. Pelecanus crispus - 40-50 21-25 A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ CT Annexe 2

32. Ciconia nigra - 1-2 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

33. Ciconia ciconia 10-12 85-120 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

34. Haliaeetus albicilla 1-2 5-7 2-3 A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ CT Annexe 2

35. Pandion haliaetus - 1-2 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

36. Clanga pomarina - 2-3 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

37. Milvus migrans 2? 2-4 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ CT Annexe 2

38. Circus aeruginosus 11-13 31-35 - A4/B1 + - Annexe 2

39. Circus cyaneus - - 5-10 A4/B1 + - Annexe 2

40. Circus pygargus - 6-10 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ T Annexe 2

41. Circus macrourus - 2-4 - A1,

A4/B1,

+ T Annexe 2


- 51 -

No.

Species


IBA

Criteria

Birds’

Directive

Annexe

1

Romanian

Red Book

of

Vertebrates

Law no.

407/2006 Breeding

(pairs)

Migration

(individuals)

Wintering

(individuals)

B2

42. Buteo rufinus - 3-12 4-6 A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

43. Buteo buteo 4-6 20-30 10-15 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

44. Buteo lagopus - - 7-9 A4/B1 + - Annexe 2

45. Pernis apivorus - 5-10 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

46. Accipiter nisus x 6-12 5-10 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

47. Accipiter gentilis x 4-7 3-5 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

48. Falco tinnunculus 10-13 21-28 6-10 A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

49. Falco vespertinus 1-2 6-7 - A1,

A4/B1,

B2

+ V Annexe 2

50. Falco subbuteo - 13-15 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

51. Rallus aquaticus 3-5? x - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

52. Porzana porzana 2-3? x - A4/B1,

B3

+ - Annexe 2

53. Gallinula chloropus 43-58 125-250 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

54. Fulica atra 25-40 460-780 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

55. Vanellus vanellus 5-7 50-60 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

56. Limosa limosa - 5-8 - A4/B1,

B2

- - Annexe 2

57. Tringa ochropus - 5-10 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

58. Tringa stagnatilis - 6-15 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

59. Tringa totanus - 36-54 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

60. Gallinago gallinago - 3-5 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

61. Chroicocephalus

ridibundus

x 650-900 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

62. Larus cachinnans x 150-200 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

63. Chlidonias niger 5-7 25-30 - A4/B1,

B2

+ - Annexe 2

64. Chlidonias hybridus 41-43 150-250 - A4/B1,

B2

+ - Annexe 2

65. Sterna hirundo 38-72 250-400 - A4/B1,

B2

+ - Annexe 2

66. Tachybaptus ruficollis 12-14 44-52 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

67. Podiceps cristatus 21-23 72-88 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

68. Podiceps grisegena 2-4 8-14 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

69. Podiceps nigricollis 1-3 10-12 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

70. Columba palumbus 20-25 55-78 - A4/B1 - - Annexe 1

71. Streptopelia decaocto x x x A4/B1 - - Annexe 1


- 52 -

No.

Species


IBA

Criteria

Birds’

Directive

Annexe

1

Romanian

Red Book

of

Vertebrates

Law no.

407/2006 Breeding

(pairs)

Migration

(individuals)

Wintering

(individuals)

72. Cuculus canorus x x - A4/B1 - - Annexe 2

73. Strix aluco 1-2? x x B2 - - Annexe 2

74. Athene noctua 7-9 x x B2 - - Annexe 2

75. Alcedo atthis 6-8 x - B2 + - Annexe 2

76. Merops apiaster 21-24 58-78 - A4/B1,

B2

- - Annexe 2

77. Coracias garrulus 8-12 32-52 - B2 + - Annexe 2

78. Upupa epops x x - B2 - V Annexe 2

79. Dendrocopos major x x x B2 - - Annexe 2

80. Dendrocopos syriacus x x x B3 + - Annexe 2

81. Dendrocopos minor x x x B2 - - Annexe 2

82. Picus canus x x x B2 + - Annexe 2

83. Galerida cristata x x x B2 - - Annexe 2

84. Alauda arvensis 24-28 56-73 - B2 - - Annexe 2

85. Riparia riparia 18-24 146-184 - A4/B1,

B2

- - Annexe 2

86. Hirundo rustica x x - B2 - - Annexe 2

87. Delichon urbicum x x - B2 - - Annexe 2

88. Anthus campestris 13-15 42-48 - B2 + - Annexe 2

89. Motacilla flava 10-12 34-42 - B2 - - Annexe 2

90. Motacilla alba 15-17 50-65 - B2 - - Annexe 2

91. Erithacus rubecula x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

92. Saxicola rubetra x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

93. Saxicola rubicola x x - B2 - - Annexe 2

94. Oenanthe pleschanka x x - B2 + V Annexe 2

95. Turdus pilaris - - 120-130 B3 - - Annexe 1

96. Turdus merula x x x B3 - - Annexe 2

97. Sylvia curruca x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

98. Sylvia communis x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

99. Acrocephalus

schoenobaenus

x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

100. Acrocephalus palustris x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

101. Acrocephalus

scirpaceus


102. Acrocephalus

arundinaceus


103. Hippolais icterina x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

104. Muscicapa striata x x - B2 - - Annexe 2

105. Phylloscopus collybita x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

106. Troglodytes troglodytes x x x B3 - - Annexe 2

107. Parus major x x x - - - Annexe 2


- 53 -

No.

Species


IBA

Criteria

Birds’

Directive

Annexe

1

Romanian

Red Book

of

Vertebrates

Law no.

407/2006 Breeding

(pairs)

Migration

(individuals)

Wintering

(individuals)

108. Cyanistes caeruleus x x x - - - Annexe 2

109. Panurus biarmicus x x - - - - Annexe 2

110. Remiz pendulinus x x - - - - Annexe 2

111. Lanius excubitor - - 5-10 B2 + - Annexe 2

112. Lanius collurio 30-50 x - B2 + - Annexe 2

113. Lanius minor 22-32 x - B2 + - Annexe 2

114. Pica pica x x x - - - Annexe 1

115. Corvus monedula x x x - - - Annexe 1

116. Corvus frugilegus x x x - - - Annexe 1

117. Corvu cornix x x x - - - Annexe 1

118. Corvus corax x x x B3 - - Annexe 1

119. Sturnus vulgaris x x x - - - Annexe 1

120. Oriolus oriolus x x - - - - Annexe 2

121. Passer domesticus x x x - - - Annexe 2

122. Passer hispaniolensis 5-7 x - B3 - - Annexe 2

123. Passer montanus x x x - - - Annexe 2

124. Carduelis cannabina - x - B3 - - Annexe 2

125. Chloris chloris x x x B3 - - Annexe 2

126. Carduelis carduelis x x x B3 - - Annexe 2

127. Emberiza schoeniclus x x x - - - Annexe 2

128. Emberiza calandra x x - B3 - - Annexe 2

129. Emberiza citrinella x x x B3 - - Annexe 2

Legend: Effectives: 2? – probably or possibly breeding effectives in the area; x – uncertainly data.

IBA Criteria: A1 – globally threatened species; A3 – species of restrictive biome; A4/B1 – bird species forming great agglomerations in different period of the year (breeding season, migration, wintering time); B2 – species with unfavourable conservation status in Europe; B3 – species with favourable conservation status in Europe. Romanian Red Book of Vertebrates: V – vulnerable species; T – threatened species; CT – critically threatened species. Law no. 407/2006: Annexe 1 – bird species with hunting permission status; Annexe 2 – bird species with prohibit hunting status.


- 54 -

References

Botnariuc, N., Tatole, V. (eds.), 2005. Cartea Roșie a vertebratelor din România. (Red Book of Vertebrates from

Romania). Romanian Academy & National Museum of Natural History “Grigore Antipa”, București.

Ciochia, V., Negruțiu, A., 1998. Importanța Dobrogei și Rezervației Biosferei Delta Dunării pentru migrația

păsărilor din Europa și problema ocrotirii acestora. In Simpozionul International Problematica

conservării păsărilor de pasaj din Europa, Africa și Asia, Bucuresti, 33.

Munteanu, D., 2004. Ariile de Importanță Avifaunistică din România – documentații. Ed. Alma Mater, Cluj

Napoca, 103-114.

Papp, T., Fântână, C. (eds.), 2008. Important Birds in Romania. Romanian Ornithological Society & Milvus Group

Association, Tg. Mureș.

Rădulescu, N., Vladimirov, O., 2007. Isaccea, pagini de monografie, I. Ed. Ex Ponto, Constanța, 17.

Guvernul României, 2006. Law (no. 407/2006) of hunting fund protection. Monitorul Oficial, 944/22.11.2006,

Bucharest.

Guvernul României, 2007. Law (no. 197/2007) of hunting fund protection. Monitorul Oficial, 472/13.07.2007,

Bucharest.

European Parlament, 2009. Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30

November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds. Official Journal of the European Union, 26.01.2010,

L20/7 - L20/25, Brussels.


- 55 -

MEDIEVAL NECROPOLIS (14TH

-15TH

CENTURIES) OF PIATRA

NEAMȚ-DĂRMĂNEȘTI (NEAMȚ COUNTY, ROMANIA).

ANTHROPOLOGICAL REPORT FOR 2012 CAMPAIGN

Vasilica-Monica GROZA1, Angela SIMALCSIK1 and Luminița BEJENARU1, 2

1 Romanian Academy – Iași Branch, Department of Anthropological Research, Str. Codrescu, 2, Iași, 700481 2 ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Faculty of Biology, Bd. Carol I, 20 A, Iași, 700505, Romania,

[email protected]

Abstract. The human osteological series in this report was exhumed in 2012 from the medieval necropolis of

Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești (Neamt County, Romania). The necropolis is dated between the 14th

-15th centuries. 27

inhumation tombs were identified – 24 individual and four double, whereof they recovered 32 human skeletons

(nine males, nine females and 14 of unknown gender). Few of these also had an inventory. The orientation of the

deceased was on the western-eastern ax, looking towards sunrise, lying on their backs according to the Christian

ritual. The skeletons were reasonably well preserved. Of the 32 skeletons, 14 were younger than 14 years old, two

subjects were aged 14-20 years old (both females) and the other 16 subjects (nine males and seven females) were

past 20 years old. The average lifespan for the entire sample (0-x years) was 25.63 years, and by gender at adults

(20-x years), it was 44.17 years in males and 40.36 years in females.

Keywords: Piatra Neamt-Dărmănești, XIVth

-XVth

centuries, Medieval necropolis, anthropological data

Rezumat. Necropola medievală de la Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești (secolele XIV-XV). Raport antropologic

pentru campania 2012. Seria osteologică umană la care ne referim a fost deshumată în anul 2012 din necropola

medievală de la Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești. Limitele de folosire în timp a necropolei ar fi situate între secolele

XIV-XV. Au fost identificate 27 de morminte de înhumație - 24 individuale și patru duble, din care s-au

recuperat 32 de schelete umane (nouă masculine, nouă feminine și 14 cu sexul indeterminabil), puține dintre

acestea având și inventar. Orientarea defuncților coincide cu axul vest-est, cu privirea spre răsărit, depuși în poziție

întinsă pe spate, potrivit ritualului creștin. Starea de conservare a scheletelor este satisfăcătoare. Dintre cele 32 de

schelete, 14 nu au depășit vârsta de 14 ani, doi subiecți se încadrează în intervalul de vârstă 14-20 ani (2 femei) iar

ceilalți 16 subiecți (nouă bărbați și șapte femei) au trecut de vârsta de 20 ani. Durata medie de viață pentru întregul

eșantion studiat (0-x ani) este de 25,63 de ani, iar pe sexe la adulti (20-x ani), aceasta este de 44,17 ani la bărbați și

40,36 ani la femei.

Cuvinte cheie: Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești, secolele XIV-XV, necropola medievală, date antropologice

Introduction

The archaeological excavations conducted in 2012 on the premises of Piatra

Neamț-Dărmănești necropolis, by the archaeologists of Piatra Neamț Museum of History

and Archaeology (Garvăn et al., 2014) led to the discovery of 27 inhumation tombs – 24

individual and four double, whereof they recovered 32 human skeletons (14th-15th

centuries); few of these also had an inventory. The archaeological site in Dărmănești

district is located within the incorporated area of the town, on its northern side, at a

crossroads between 1 Decembrie 1918 Street and Dărmănești Street. In terms of relief, the area is a plateau which rises slightly towards the north-west and is located on the lower

terrace of Cuejd river’s left bank.

The tombs weren’t much longer than the deceased and some had rounded corners.

We also noted that, compared to the present walking level, the holes were between 0.53


Vasilica-Monica Groza et al.

- 56 -

meters and 0.93 meters deep, which was also influenced by the age of the deceased (adult

tombs were the deepest). The orientation of the deceased was on the western-eastern ax,

looking towards sunrise, lying on their backs according to the Christian ritual.

The first archaeological studies in the necropolis of Piatra Neamt-Dărmănești

were conducted in 1957 by archaeologists A. Nițu, I. Zamoșteanu and M. Zamoșteanu.

These studies identified archaeological materials dated from the 2nd-3rd centuries

(ceramics, clay weights), but also a few specific of the 3rd-4th centuries (a fibula). They

also identified a medieval necropolis (14th-15th centuries) located on the Carpi settlement.

Eight tombs were subjected to research and, with the help of a Petru Musat coin and various

adornments; they were dated in the 14th-15th centuries (Nițu et al., 1959). In 1958, further

research was conducted by a team including A. Nitu, C. Matasa, I. Zamosteanu and A. Buzila (Mătasă et al., 1961). They studied 10 tombs, some of them double, which were

dated based on the inventory. New excavations were conducted in 1968, with the main

purpose of researching the medieval necropolis. Seven more tombs were studied, one of

them double (Spinei, 1969).


In this work we present a concise anthropological report of the osteological

material discovered in 2012 in the medieval necropolis of Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești (14th-

15th centuries). The osteological series consists of 32 skeletons derived from 27 inhumation

tombs – 23 individual and four double, skeleton M 28 being disturbed by previous

interventions. The anthropological analysis started with the cleaning, marking and restoration of skeletal remains, followed by a morphoscopic analysis, recording of

biometric data, gender determination and estimation of the age at death, as well as a

paleopathological analysis.

The age at death for subjects less than 20 years old (infans I, infans II și juvenis)

was established based on the primary and permanent teeth eruption, according to the

methods suggested by Ubelaker (1979), Moores et al. (1963), Schaefer et al. (2009), as well

as by analyzing the ossification level of the long bone epiphyses and their respective

classification within age categories (Maresh, 1970; Scheuer & Black, 2000).

The age at death for the segment 20-x years (adultus, maturus și senilis) was

established based on the following criteria: pubic symphyseal morphology, dental erosion,

degenerative transformations of the sacroiliac joints, transformations of the spongy long bone

tissue, cranial suture obliteration, the rib heads shape, intra vitam tooth loss. The sex was determined for subjects past 14 years old based on the following aspects: pelvis characteristics,

the skeleton’s massiveness and robustness, joints and muscle insertions development level, skull

and mandible features, shape and size of teeth. The sex (14-x ani) and age at death for subjects

past 20 years old was established based on the methods recommended by Stradalova (1975),

Ubelaker (1979), Ferembach et al. (1979), Brothwell (1981), Mays (1998), Bruzek (2002),

Walrath et al. (2004), White & Folkens (2005), Schmitt (2005), Latham & Finnegan (2010),

and Blanchard (2010).

The anthropometric and conformational study of each skeleton was based on the

Martin & Saller (1956-1966) techniques, whereas for size evaluation we used the dimorphic

scales of Alexeev & Debeț (1964). Morphoscopic observations were recorded and analyzed

based on the methods suggested by Eickstedt (1934) and Olivier (1969). Stature was calculated (based on the dimensions of upper member long bones – humerus, radius, ulna;


- 57 -

and lower member long bones – femur, tibia, and fibula) using the dimensional scales

proposed by Manouvrier (1893), Bach (1965), Breitinger (1938), and Trotter & Glesser

(1952).

Pathologies, anomalies and epigenetic/non-metric features were identified and

classified based on the methods recommended by Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994), Mays

(1998), Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin (1998), Cox & Mays (2000), Ortner (2003),

Waldron (2009), and Barnes (2012).


Individual description of skeletons

M 1 Skeleton – features traits which allow us to ascribe it to a woman aged 60-65 years old. The cranial fragments allowed us to reconstruct an incomplete skullcap (Fig. 1)

and the facial massif which lacks nasal bones, zygomatic processes, and the left half of the

mandible (Fig. 2).

The neurocranium is wide (142 mm) and its shape in norma verticalis is sphenoid.

Mastoid apophyses are averagely developed (IInd-IIIrd degree) and there is a moderate

supramastoidian relief. The face couldn’t be restored. The nose is averagely wide (24 mm)

with an anthropine pyriform aperture. The left malar bone, medium developed, has an

intermediate position and there is a deep canine fossa. The mandible, partly toothed, is

gracile with a wide vertical (34.50 mm) and medium high (60.50 mm) ramus; the button

prominent chin, the mandibular tori and the gonion region are poorly delineated. Dentition,

restricted to two teeth found in alveoli (canine – radicular remain and the right maxillary first premolar) is in a state of advanced erosion (IIIrd-IVth degree).

The postcranial skeleton is represented by part of the long bones, two fragments of

the hip bones, the right astragalus, clavicles, a fragment of the atlas, a fragment of the axis,

two fragments of the cervical vertebrae, 10 dorsal vertebrae (incomplete), phalanges and

metacarpal bones derived from the upper right member. The right femur is hyperplatimer

(64.17 i.u.), missing the pilaster, and with moderately developed subtrochanteric relief,

whereas the left tibia is platycnemic (58.06 i.u.).

Stature, calculated based on the length of the present long bones, has a mean of

160.91 cm, which falls under the tall category.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: the left tibia’s inferior epiphysis

has an additional joint facet (Fig. 3).

M 2 Skeleton – belongs to a child aged 10-11 years old (infans II), whose gender couldn’t be determined.

From the cranial skeleton we recovered: seven fragments of the frontal bone, 14

fragments of the parietal bones, two fragments of the occipital bone, the right temporal

flake, the right malar bone (Fig. 4), the right half of the mandible (teeth found in alveoli:

the first permanent molar, the second permanent molar – poised to erupt), a fragment of the

right upper maxillary (Fig. 5).

The postcranial skeleton is represented by a right humerus (missing the inferior

epiphysis), the right radius diaphysis, a fragment of the right cubitus, a fragment of the right

clavicle, three fragments of the right hip bone, 17 rib fragments and six phalanges.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: we note the presence of

extracranial porosity on the orbital part of the frontal bone – cribra orbitalia (IIIrd

degree) (Fig. 6).


- 58 -

M 3 Skeleton – incomplete and fragmented, it belonged to a child.

The cranial segment is represented by the neurocranial bones (frontal, incomplete

parietals and occipital bone), the right malar (Fig. 7), the upper maxillary and the mandible

(without vertical rami) – Fig. 8.

The postcranial segment consists of the femur, tibiae, fibualae and humeri

dyaphises, the left radius dyaphisis and a fragment of the right cubitus dyaphisis.

Based on the primary teeth development (incomplete) and the first permanent

molar present both in the upper maxillary and on the mandible, we can establish the child’s

age around 6 (infans I).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: – cribra orbitalia in the right

orbit (Fig. 9). M 4 Skeleton – belonged to a mature male (30-35 years old).

The inventory of the bone remains discovered in this tomb allows us to remark

upon the relatively complete aspect of this skeleton and its satisfactory state of

preservation. Thus, the cranial skeleton is represented by a complete “cranium” (Figs. 10-

11) and the postcranial segment includes the the long bones, two astragali, two calcanei,

two hip bones (incomplete), a sacrum, two clavicles, the sternum, two blade bones

(incomplete), 30 rib fragments, the atlas (incomplete), 10 dorsal vertebrae, five lumbar

vertebrae, phalanges, metacarpal and metatarsal bones.

The skull, egg-shaped in norma verticalis and “house-shaped” in norma occipitalis,

is long (190 mm), averagely wide (140 mm) and high (118 mm); cranial indices are

dolichocephalic (73.68 i.u.), orthocephalic (62.11 i.u.), metriocephalic (84,29 i.u.). The spherical forehead is eurimetopic (72.50 i.u.), with a pronounced glabellar outline (IIIrd

degree). The occipital bone is narrow and averagely curved with a poorly delineated outer

prominence. The mastoid apophyses are well developed (IIIrd degree), with a delineated

supramastoidian relief.

The face is high – leptene (55.76 i.u.), with mesoconch orbits (84,14 i.u. –

average) and leptorrhine nose (38.18 i.u. – narrow and high). The malar bones are

moderately developed and intermediately positioned. The dental arcade is divergent

parabolic and deep, whereas the pyriform aperture is anthropine.

The mandible, moderately robust (37.50 i.u.), presents a prominent chin,

pyramidal and with slightly developed gonions.

Dentition is present in its entirety on mandibular level, whereas in the upper

maxillary it presents some “post-mortem” losses (central incisors, lateral incisor and canine – on the right side).

Tooth abrasion is weak (Ist degree), slightly more pronounced in the mastication

teeth (IInd degree).

The postcranial skeleton is robust. Femurs are eurymere (right – 84.93 i.u.; left –

87.32 i.u.), with a well developed pilaster (right – 112.90 i.u.; left – 111.29 i.u.) and a

pronounced subtrochanteric outline (crest and fossa). The tibiae are symmetrically flattened

and appear to be mesocnemic (right – 67.50 i.u.; left – 64.63 i.u.), without presenting

additional joint facets in the astragali. The humeri are eurybrachic (right – 88.67 i.u.; left –

88.46 i.u.), with pronounced muscle insertions (Fig. 12) but without supratrochlear

foramen.

Stature, calculated based on the upper and lower members’ length, has a value of 178.14 cm, which indicates a tall stature, at the upper limit of the category.


- 59 -

M 5 Skeleton – belonged to a teenage girl between 14 and 15 years old (juvenis).

From the cranial skeleton we recovered the skullcap (frontal and parietal bones - Fig. 13),

two fragments of upper maxillary and mandible (missing the right vertical ramus) - Fig. 14.

The neurocranium is small (122 mm) and averagely narrow (138 mm). The

forehead dimensions – both minimal and maximal, are average (93 mm and 107 mm,

respectively), the ratio between these dimensions indicating an oval forehead; the ratio

between the minimal forehead dimension and skull width is metriometopic (67.39 i.u.). The

skull height (on a porion-bregma level) in relation to its width results in a tapeinocephalic

index (short – 73.91 i.u.).

The sphenoid outline of the skull alludes to a mesocephalic or incipiently

brachycephalic shape. Due to advanced fragmentation, the face couldn’t be subjected to measurements or

morphoscopical observations.

The mandible, robust (44.44 i.u.), has a short horizontal ramus, a button and

prominent chin, poorly delineated mandible torus, slightly turned up gonions and the

vertical ramus (short and narrow) is slightly oblique.

Dentition. Isolated teeth: the upper maxillary contains all the teeth. In the

mandible, the following are missing: central-left incisor, first left premolar and second right

molar.

The postcranial skeleton is incomplete and fragmented due to taphonomic causes.

The femurs are platimer (right – 78.18 i.u.; left – 77.77 i.u.), both missing the pilaster

(rightt – 96 i.u.; left – 95.91 i.u.). The tibiae are eurycnemic (right – 81.48 i.u.; left – 82.69 i.u.) and the humeri belong to eurybrachic categories (right – 85.71 i.u.; left – 85.29 i.u.).

Stature (calculated based on the length of femurs and right tibia) indicates a short

female stature (147.66 cm).

M 6 Skeleton: well preserved and almost complete; it belonged to a female

subject aged around 25-30 years (adultus).

In the cranial area, we restored a “cranium” (Figs. 15-16) which lacks only a

fragment of the right temporal flake, the right zygomatic process and the right malar

bone. The mandible is missing the right vertical ramus.

Based on the ratio between its length (185 mm – very long) and width (135 mm –

average), the neurocranium can be defined as dolichocephalic (72.97 i.u.). Its shape,

considered in the norma verticalis, is ovoid, whereas in norma occipitalis it is curved. The

porion-bregma longitudinal and transverse height indices belong to the chamecephalic (56.75 i.u.) and tapeinocephalic (77.77 i.u.) categories. The forehead is oval (85.90 i.u.) and

eurymetopic (70 i.u.). The occipital bone is visibly curved and averagely wide (104 mm).

The skull’s outline appears pronouncedly: glabellar – IIIrd degree, supraorbital – IInd degree,

outer occipital protuberance – IIIrd-IVth degree. Mastoid apophyses belong to the IVth-Vth

degree, whereas supramastoidian relief is also strongly developed.

The facial skeleton is medium high (110 mm). The orbits are high (hypsiconch –

91.78 i.u.) and the nose is mesorrhine (48.03 i.u.) – medium narrow and high. The nasal

region features an “anthropine” piriform aperture. The left malar bone, averagely

developed, has a slightly temporalized tendency and a prominent outline. There is a IInd

degree canine fossa and a deep palate, with divergent parabolic outline.

The gracile mandible (37.28 i.u.) has a moderately high horizontal ramus, both in the nutrient foramen (31 mm) and the jugal teeth (29.5 mm). The mentonian region is


- 60 -

button-shaped, poorly delineated and the gonion region is faded. The vertical mandibular

ramus is slightly oblique, very wide and short.

Dentition – 18 teeth are present in their alveoli, seven on the upper maxillary and

11 on the mandible. We also noted the presence of three severe caries – IVth degree (upper

second molar on the right and lower first and second molar on the left). The lower first

molar on the right presented an infectious process which led to the destruction of the outer

alveolar wall (granuloma) – Fig. 17.

The postcranial skeleton, present almost in its entirety, is gracile, with poorly

delineated muscle insertion outline. The femurs are hyperplatimer (right – 67.24 i.u.; left –

66.66 i.u.), missing the pilaster (right – 93.75 i.u. i.u.; left – 89.79 u.i.), with a third

trochanter and a subtrochanteric crest in the hip muscle insertion place. The tibiae are eurycnemic (right – 76.92 i.u.; left – 78.43 i.u.), lacking additional joint surfaces with the

tali. The humeri are eurybrachic (right – 81.08 i.u.; left – 80.55 i.u.) with a pronounced

deltoid outline.

Stature falls under the tall female category (160.40 cm), located at its lower limit.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: – microdontia in the third upper

right molar (Fig. 18); lesions in the frontal bone (Fig. 19); supratrochlear foramen in the

humeri lower epiphyses (Fig. 20).

M 7 Skeleton: well preserved, it belonged to a mature woman (45-50 years old -

maturus). The cranial segment is represented by an almost fully restored “cranium” – Fig.

21.

The neurocranium, sphenoid in norma verticalis, is wide (145 mm); skull height, on a porion-bregma level, is rather low (106 mm) and the height index, mainly the vertical-

transverse one (20/8: 73.10 i.u.) can be defined as tapeinocephalic (low). The forehead is

averagely wide on absolute levels – minimal (91 mm) and maximal (120 mm), but

stenometopic based on the fronto-parietal index (75.83 i.u.), spherical in shape (75.83 i.u.),

with a well delineated glabella (IIIrd degree).

The face is euryprosopic based on the total facial index (82.30 i.u.- low) and

euryene according to the upper facial index (46.92 i.u. - low); metrical values of the upper

floor width (130 mm) and height (61 mm) belong to the large and small category,

respectively, whereas total height appears to be average (107 mm). The rectangular orbits

are hypsiconch (86.11 i.u. – high orbits). Nasal index is leptorrhine, but situated at the

lower limit of the category (41.93 i.u. – narrow and high nose). The palate is

brachystaphiline (88.75 i.u.), moderately deep and upsiloid. The malar bones are high and intermediately disposed; canine fossae are superficial (IInd degree) and nasal piriform

aperture appears to be anthropine.

Mandible: medium robust – the robusticity index indicates a value of 41.37 i.u. the

horizontal ramus is high (both in the nutrient foramen - 31 mm, and the jugal teeth - 29

mm); the mentonian region is button-shaped, slightly prominent, and the mandibular ramus

is poorly outlined. The mandible’s vertical ramus, short (59 mm) and averagely wide (33.5

mm) is slightly oblique.

Dentition consists of 17 teeth found in their alveoli – seven in the upper maxillary

and 10 in the mandible (in an advanced state of erosion – Vth degree). The second upper

right molar presents a granuloma (Fig. 22).

The postcranial skeleton is gracile. Both femurs are hyperplatimer (right – 70.0 i.u.; left – 73.33 i.u.), missing the pilaster (right – 95.91 i.u.; left – 93.87 i.u.), and with


- 61 -

moderately developed subtrochanteric relief. The tibiae are mesocnemic (right – 67.27 i.u.;

left – 66.66 i.u.) and the right humerus is eurybrachic (92.10 i.u.).

Stature has an average of 151.34 cm, which falls under the subaverage female

category.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: – additional joint facets in the

tibiae distal epiphyses (where it joins the astragalus) – Fig. 23; pronounced preauricular

coxal sulcus (Fig. 24).

M 8 Skeleton – the bone material from this skeleton belongs to a male subject

aged 40-45 years old (mature). It is represented by a “cranium” – Fig. 25 (missing the base

and one fragment of the frontal, parietal and occipital bones – left side) and an incomplete

postcranial skeleton. The neurocranium is averagely long (182 mm) and the forehead is straight, devoid

of bossae, with a prominent glabella (IInd-IIIrd degree). The occipital bone is moderately

curved, with a well expressed bone relief (occipital protuberance – IInd-IIIrd degree), large

mastoid apophyses (IIIrd

-IVth

degree) and a pronounced supramastoidian outline.

The face falls under the very small category, both on absolute and relative level:

total height – 102 mm, upper floor height – 61 mm. The orbits – width: 37 mm; height: 30

mm are mesoconch (81.08 i.u. – average); the mesorrhine nose (50.50 i.u. – average) has

anthropine right keel and piriform aperture; the dental arcade is upsiloid with

mesostaphiline palate index (80 i.u.). the malar bones are intermediately disposed and the

canine fossa is in the IInd degree of development.

The mandible, robust (44.82 i.u.), has a short horizontal ramus (29 mm) pronouncedly button shaped chin and weakly developed gonions.

Dentition consists of 18 teeth in their alveoli – eight in the upper maxillary and 10

in the mandible (tooth loss took place both “in vivo” and “post-mortem”) without caries,

on the whole; dental erosion is moderate (IInd or IIIrd degree).

The postcranial skeleton, gracile, presents hyperplatimer femurs (right – 68.11

i.u.; left – 66.17 i.u.), missing the pilaster (right – 83.87 i.u.; left – 83.60 i.u.) and

mesocnemic tibiae (left – 69.11 i.u.; right – 68.65 i.u.). The right humerus is eurybrachic

(83.33 i.u.) and the left humerus is platybrachic (75.51 i.u.).

Stature: calculated based on the length of the right tibia and right cubitus, falls

under the average category for males.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: lesion in the frontal bone (Fig.

26); the third upper left molar has traces of a granuloma (Fig. 27); right tibia with additional joint facets in the epiphysis (where it joins the astragalus) - Fig. 28; lumbar vertebrae with

marginal ostephytes (Fig. 29).

M 9 Skeleton – belongs to a female subject, aged around 20-25 years old at death

(adultus).

From the cranial fragments we could restore a relatively complete "cranium"

(missing only a fragment of the frontl bone and a fragment of the basion-occipial region)

(Fig. 30).

The neurocranium is averagely long (170 mm), wide (140 mm) and short (105

mm), egg-shaped in norma verticalis and "house-shaped" in norma occipitalis. the cranial

index is brachycephalic (82.35 i.u.) and longitudinal and transverse porion-bregma indices

belong to the orthocepalic (61.76) and tapeinocephalic (75.00) categories. Fronto-transverse (81.08) and fronto-parietal (64.28) indices refer to an oval and stenometope forehead. The


- 62 -

occipital bone is wide (111 mm), slightly curved and moderately high, with a parieto-

occipital index of 79.28 i.u. The skull relief is moderate (glabellar - Ist degree, outer

occipital protuberance IInd degree), the mastoid apophysis is moderate (Ist-IInd degree), and

the supramastoidian outline is pronunced.

The face is defined by a mesene upper facial index (54.00 i.u. - average) and a

leptoprosopic total facial index (91.98 i.u.), which indicates a high facial segment. The

orbital index is situated at the lower limit of the chameconch category (73.41 i.u. – low

orbits) and the nose is leptorrhine (46.15 i.u. – narrow and high). The nasal region features

an anthropine piriform aperture. The malar bones, moderately developed, present a slightly

frontalized disposition and prominent outline. The canine fossa is profound (IInd-IIIrd

degree), the nasal spine – Ist degree and thepalate is deep, with divergent parabolic outline. The mandible: appears to be averagely wide, both in terms of intercondilian

diameter (115 mm) and intergonion diameter (98 mm), with short and narrow mandibular

body (69(1): 26.50 mm; 69(3): 10 mm), low robusticity index (37.73 i.u. – gracile mandible).

The mentonian region is pyramidal in shape, vaguely prominent, and the gonion region is

pronounced. The mandibular vertical ramus is slightly oblique, very wide and short.

Dentition. We note the post mortem loss of three teeth on the upper right arcade

and three teeth on the mandible. 25 teeth are present in their alveoli, whereof 12 on the

upper maxillary and 13 on the mandible, with a slightly worn down chewing surface (Ist

degree).

From the postcranial skeleton we only recovered the upper epiphysis and a small

fragment of the right humerus diaphysis, two vertebrae of the sacrum, two scapulae (incomplete), clavicles, 22 rib fragments, six cervical vertebrae, nine dorsal vertebrae, a

metacarpal and a phalanx.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: a Wormian bone in the occipital

bone (located on the lambdoid suture) – Fig. 31.

M 10 Skeleton. From this child skeleton (infans II; 11-12 years old – unknown

gender) we recovered fragments of the neurocranium: the left half of the frontal bone,

seven fragments of the frontal bone’s right side, two parietal bones (incomplete), the malar

bones, temporal flakes (Fig. 32), the right half of the upper maxillary and mandible (Fig.

33).

Dentition. In the upper maxillary (ride side), the premolars and first and second

molars are present in their alveoli, whereas the first incisor and first left premolar are

isolated. The mandible contains the permanent lateral incisor (only the one on the right), the permanent canine teeth, the first premolars (permanent), and the first and second permanent

molars (erupted tooth buds).

The postcranial skeleton features the femurs, two tibia fragments, two humeri, a

fragment of the left radius, the cubiti (missing distal epipyses), two hip bones, the clavicles

(incomplete left one), two shoulder blade fragments, 35 rib fragments, seven cervical

vertebrae (incomplete atlas bone), 11 dorsal vertebrae, four lumbar vertebrae and 11

phalanges.

M 11 Skeleton. The bone material of this skeleton is incomplete and damaged.

Based on the tooth development stage and the length of the long bones, we can evaluate the

subject’s age at around 2.5-3 years old (infans I).

The cranial skeleton is represented by four fragments of the frontal bone, 12 parietal fragments, four fragments of the occipital bone, temporal flakes, the left malar bone


- 63 -

(Fig. 34), the mandible (missing a fragment of the left horizontal ramus and the left vertical

ramus) and the upper maxillary (incomplete) – Fig. 35.

Deciduous teeth are represented by: the lateral incisor, the upper first and second

molars – right arcade; first incisor, canine, first and second upper molars – left arcade;

second incisor, canine, first and second lower molars – on the right (Fig. 35).

The postcranial segment is represented by: femurs, tibiae, a fragment of the left

hip bone, the left fibula diaphysis, incomplete humeri (the right one lacks both epiphyses

and the left one lacks the upper epiphysys), a left cubitus fragment, a left clavicle, 12 rib

fragments, 10 vertebral fragments and four phalanges (upper member).

M 12 Skeleton. This skeleton, poorly preserved, can be attributed to a male aged

between 55 and 60 years old (maturus). The bone inventory revealed an incomplete skullcap – Fig. 36 (missinmg the

following: a fragment of the frontal bone, the skull base, the left mastoid apophysis, a

fragment of the left parietal and a fragment of the right parietal) and the incomplete facial

massif (represented only by the left malar, the upper maxillary and the mandible.

The neurocranium presents both large and average dimensions (length – 190 mm;

width – 143 mm) and a mesocephalic index (75.26 i.u. – average).

The forehead dimensions – both minimal and maximal – are wide (102 mm and

112 mm, respectively) and the fronto-parietal and fronto-transverse indixes indicate an

eurymetopic forehead (71.32 i.u.), oval-shaped (91.07 i.u.). The occipital bone is averagely

wide (107.50 mm), curved and high, with faint muscle impressions. The bone relief is

moderate in the front (glabellar – IIIrd degree, supraorbital – Ist-IInd degree), but the mastoid apophysis is well developed (IVth degree)

On a facial level, we note the upsiloid and deep shape of the palate and an

anthropine piriform aperture. The moderately developed left malar presents a slightly

frontalized disposition and a prominent outline, whereas the canine fossa is moderate (IInd

degree).

The mandible is gracile (36.92 i.u.). The horizontal ramus height and thickness is

average in the mentonian foramen (32.5 mm and 12 mm, respectively). The gonion

mandibular region is poorly developed.

Dentition is incomplete and in an advanced state of erosion (IIIrd-IVth degree). In

the upper and lower teeth, we note the presence of supragingival calculus – an organo-

mineral complex attached to the teeth surface and resulted from the bacterial plaque

mineralization (Figs. 37-38). The postcranial skeleton is robust, mainly represented by the long bones. The

femurs are hyperplatimer (right – 73.91 i.u.; left – 72.46 i.u.) missing the pilaster (right –

91.52 i.u.; left – 91.37 i.u.) with a subtrochanteric crest and additional trochanter. The tibiae

are eurycnemic (right – 77.02 i.u., left – 76.71 i.u.), without additional joint facets

connecting with the talus. The humeri, featuring a poorly developed deltoid outline, are

eurybrachic (right – 78.26 i.u., left – 76,08 i.u.)

Stature, calculated based on the length of the long bones, falls under the average

category (165.11 cm).

M 13 Skeleton – belongs to an adult male (25-30 years old).

In the cranial segment we identified bones or fragments of both neurocranium –

Fig. 39 and face – Fig. 40, but their study is limited to stating some measurements and morphoscopic aspects.


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In the neurocranium, egg-shaped, we could only specify a few horizontal

dimensions: maximal width (139 mm), minimal (102.5) and maximal (120 mm) forehead

development. The resulting indices based on these dimensions, specifically the fronto-

parietal and fronto-transverse indices, seem to indicate a eurymetopic (73.74 i.u.) and oval-

shaped (85.41 i.u.) forehead. We couldn’t calculate the cranial index; however, based on

the skullcap width and outline, we believe it to have been brachycephalic (wide). The bone

relief is well delineated both frontally (IIIrd degree) and temporally (mastoid apophysis –

IVth degree)

The face: the malar bones are averagely high and temporalized and the palate is

parabolic divergent in shape and very deep. There’s a IVth degree canine fossa and a Ist-

IInd degree nasal spine. The nose appears to have been wide (chamaerrhine) with an anthropine piriform aperture.

The mandible is gracile (33.33 i.u.) with a very high (36 mm) and averagely thick

(12 mm) horizontal ramus. The vertical ramus is averagely high, wide and slightly oblique.

There is a button and prominent chin, with slightly turned up gonions.

Dentition is complete in the upper maxillary (except for the third molars -

unerupted) and the mandible contains only the right arcade teeth.

The postcranial skeleton is incomplete and fragmented. The femurs are platimer

(right – 77.94 i.u.; left – 76.61 i.u.) with pilaster (right – 101.81 i.u.; left – 101.85 i.u.) and

third trochanter. The tibiae are eurycnemic (right – 76.11 i.u., left – 75.75 i.u.), without

additional joint facets connecting with the talus. The humeri are eurybrachic (right – 84.09

i.u., left – 83.72 i.u.) Stature, calculated based on the length of the long bones, falls under the over-

medium category (169.69 cm), located at the upper limit of the category.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: we note the presence of

supragingival dental calculus in the first and second premolars and the first upper molar –

left and right (Fig. 41); bilateral spondylolysis in the last lumbar vertebra – L5 (Fig. 42);

lumbarization of the first sacral vertebra – S1 (Fig. 43).

M 14 Skeleton. This skeleton can be attributed to an adult male subject (25-30

years old). We identified six fragments of the right parietal bone, a fragment of the left

parietal bone, temporal flakes, a fragment of the occipital bone, the left half of the upper

maxillary, an incomplete mandible (missing the vertical ramus – both right and left) (Fig.

44).

The mandible is averagely gracile (38.09 i.u.) with slightly turned up gonions. The teeth present in their alveoli (upper first, second and third molars – left; lower first and

second premolars, first, second and third molars – right and left) are partly eroded (Ist

degree).

The postcranial skeleton is robust. The right femur is hyperplatimer (right – 74.28

i.u.), whereas the left femur is platimer (left – 75.36 i.u.), featuring a pronounced pilaster

(right – 108.47 i.u.; left – 114.03 i.u.) with third trochanter. The tibiae are eurycnemic (right

– 74.62 i.u., left – 77.27 i.u.) and the humeri are eurybrachic (87.23 u.i).

Stature falls under the over-medium category (167.84 cm), located at the lower

limit of the category.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: all the teeth feature supragingival

dental calculus on the lingual side (Fig. 45-46).


- 65 -

M 15 Skeleton is an incomplete and extremely fragmented skeleton which

belonged to a child aged 11-12 years old (infans II).

The cranial skeleton is represented by: nine fragments of the frontal bone, 10

fragments of the parietal bones, five fragments of the occipital bone, the upper maxillary –

incomplete and fragmented, the mandible – missing a fragment of the right horizontal

ramus and a fragment of the right vertical ramus (Fig. 47).

The teeth present in their alveoli: first and second primary molars and the first

permanent molar – upper right side; first primary molar – upper left side; first permanent

molar on the right arcade of the mandible.

Isolated teeth: first and second primary molars, central incisor and first premolar –

lower right side; second primary molar, canine, first premolar and first molar – lower left side; the second molar and first premolar – upper right side; second primary molar, first

premolar, first and second molar – upper left side.

The postcranial segment consists of: the femurs, the left tibia, the right tibia –

without distal epiphysis, three fragments of the right fibula, the right humerus, the left

humerus – without distal epiphysis, a right radius, a left radius – missing upper epiphysis, a

right cubitus – missing distal epiphysis, the left clavicle, a fragment of the left shoulder

blade, two sacrum vertebrae, 28 rib fragments, seven cervical vertebrae and six dorsal

vertebrae.

M 16 Skeleton. The bones belonged to a female subject (55-60 years old-

maturus).

The skeleton is represented by an incomplete calvaria (missing a fragment of the frontal bone, the skull base) – Fig. 48), the upper maxillary – incomplete and the mandible

– missing a fragment of the vertical left ramus (Fig. 49).

The skull, egg-shaped in norma verticalis and “house-shaped” in norma

occipitalis, is brachycephalic (81.04 i.u.) based on the very large transverse diameter (147.5

mm), hypsicephalic – 63.73 i.u. and tapeinocephalic – 78.64 i.u. The visibly curved

occipital is wide (81.01 i.u.) and high, with barely delineated bone relief; the mastoid

apophyses are developed (IInd-IIIrd degree), with pronounced supramastoidian outline.

The mandible is gracile (38.59 i.u.) with a horizontal ramus average in height and

thickness (28.5 mm and 11 mm, respectively). It has a button chin, faint gonions and the

horizontal ramus is short, wide and slightly oblique.

Dentition. We note the “in vivo” loss of the lateral incisor, second premolar, and

first, second and third molars – upper right side, the first and second premolars – upper left side and the first and second molars – lower left side. The remaining teeth were lost “post

mortem”.

The gracile postcranial skeleton is incomplete. The femurs are hyperplatimer

(right – 67.64 i.u.; left – 71.64 i.u.) with a pronounced pilaster (right – 126 i.u.; left –

130.61 i.u.) and the tibiae are eurycnemic (right – 71.64 i.u., left – 70.14 i.u.), without

additional joint facets connecting with the talus. The humeri featuring a well developed

deltoid outline are eurybrachic (right – 80.85 i.u., left – 84.78 i.u.)

Stature falls under the tall female category (164.13), situated at the lower limit of

the category.

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: metopic suture in the frontal

bone (Fig. 50), a Wormian bone (length: 48 mm; width: 27.5 mm) in the left lambdoid suture, two Wormian bones in the right lambdoid suture (Fig. 51).


- 66 -

M 17 Skeleton: 40-45 years old male (maturus). The skeleton is represented by an

almost complete “cranium” (Fig. 52) (missing a fragment of the postcranial bones).

The neurocranium is dolichocephalic (70.68 i.u.), sphenoid in norma verticalis and

“house-shaped” in norma occipitalis. The basion-bregma indices are orthocephalic (74.34

i.u.) and acrocephalic (105.18 i.u.), whereas the porion-bregma indices are hypsicephalic

(63.35 i.u.) and acrocephalic (89.62 i.u.). The forehead is oval, metriometope (67.40 i.u.)

with a developed frontal relief (glabellar – Vth degree, supraorbital – IInd degree). The

curved occipital is wide (113 mm) with a pronounced outer protuberance (IIIrd-IVth degree).

Mastoid apophyses are averagely developed (IInd-IIIrd degree) and supramastoidian outline

is pronounced.

The face features a leptene upper facial index (55.90 i.u. – long face) and a hyperleptoprosopic total facial index (95.27 i.u. – long face). The orbits are hypsiconch

(94.28 i.u. – high orbits) and the nose is leptorrhine (43.68 i.u. – narrow and high). The

nasal region features an anthropine piriform aperture. The malar bones, averagely

developed, present a slightly temporalized disposition and prominent relief. The canine

fossa is shallow (IInd degree) and the palate is deep, with divergent parabolic outline.

The mandible is robust with high horizontal ramus (34 mm) and prominent button

chin. Gonions are slightly turned up and the vertical ramus is averagely high and wide.

Dentition. No “in vivo” tooth losses were noted and there is Ist-IInd degree tooth

abrasion.

All teeth are present in their alveoli on the mandible (except for the right central

incisor); on the upper maxillary we have the first, second and first molars on the right and the first and second molars, respectively the first and second premolars on the left.

The postcranial skeleton is robust and the muscle insertion relief is well delineated

(mainly in the humeri). The humeri are eurybrachic (right – 82.63 i.u.; left – 87.23 i.u.); the

platimer femurs (right – 78.78 i.u.; left – 80 i.u.) have no pilaster (right – 98.27 i.u.; left –

94.91 i.u.); tibias, based on platycnemic indices, have nearly equal values (right – 78.57 i.u.

and left – 78.26 i.u.), and belong in the same category – eurycnemic.

Stature belongs in the under-medium male category (163.04 cm).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: a wormian bone on the left

lambdoid suture and an osteom on the left parietal bone (Fig. 53).

M 18 Skeleton: belongs to a mature male aged 40-45 years old. It is represented

by an incomplete skullcap – Fig. 54 (without the base and fragments of the parietal bones),

an incomplete facial massif – Fig. 55 (missing the left malar bone and zygomatic processes) and the incomplete and fragmented postcranial skeleton.

The skull is short (171 mm), ovoid in norma verticalis and “house-shaped” in

norma occipitalis. The occipital bone is curved and high, with well developed outer

protuberance (IInd-IIIrd degree).

The face. The malar bone is averagely wide, intermediately disposed. The palate

is deep and parabolic divergent.

The mandible is averagely robust (41.17 i.u.), with high horizontal ramus (34

mm); the width is average in gonions (103 mm) and on a bicondylar level (125 mm).

Dentition. No “in vivo” tooth losses were noted. The following teeth were present

in their alveoli: lateral incisor, canine, first and second premolars, first, second and third

molars – upper left side; canine, first and second premolars, first and second molars – lower


- 67 -

right side; lateral incisor, canine, first and second premolars, first, second and third molars

– lower left side.

The postcranial skeleton is gracile; the humeri are eurybrachic (right – 81.81 i.u.;

left – 88.09 i.u.); femurs are eurymere (right – 92.85 i.u.; left – 96.49 i.u.) with pilaster

(right – 107.69 i.u.; left – 103.77 i.u.), whereas tibiae, based on platycnemic indices, are

eurycnemic (right – 72.72 i.u. and left – 73.84 i.u.).

Stature: under-medium (162.11 cm).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: all the teeth present in their

alveoli feature supragingival dental calculus (Fig. 55).

M 19 Skeleton: male aged 60-65 years old (senilis).

Of the cranium we recovered: the frontal bone, four fragments of the parietal bones, temporal flakes, three fragments of the occipital bone, the left malar bone, the right half of

the upper maxillary and the mandible (Fig. 56).

The mandible, very high (36.5 mm) and significantly wide (16 mm) appears to be

robust (43.83 i.u.), with prominent, pyramid-shaped chin and flared gonions; dentition is

represented only by: lower right premolars and second molar; lower left canine, premolars

and second molar. The upper right molars and lower right first molar were lost “in vivo”,

whereas the rest of the teeth were lost “post-mortem”.

The postcranial skeleton, incomplete and poorly preserved, is represented by: the

right humerus – only the upper epiphysis and a fragment of the diaphysis, upper half of the

left humerus, two fragments of the right radius diaphysis, right cubitus, upper half of the

left cubitus, clavicles, shoulder blades – incomplete, three fragments of the ribs, four cervical vertebrae, 10 dorsal vertebrae, two lumbar vertebrae, sacrum bone, a right

calcaneus and the hip bones – incomplete.

Stature: calculated based on the right cubitus length, falls under the over-medium

category (168.80 cm).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: cribra orbitalia (Ist degree) in the

left orbit (Fig. 57); ulnas with osteoarthritis (Fig. 58); vertebrae – cervical, dorsal and

lumbar with marginal osteophytes (Fig. 59).

M 20 Skeleton: adult female (20-25 years old).

The skeleton consists of an incomplete skullcap (missing a fragment of the

occipital bone) – (Fig. 60), the right malar bone, two fragments of the upper maxillary and

the mandible (Fig. 61).

The neureocranium, sphenoid in norma verticalis and house-shaped in norma occipitalis, is averagely long (170 mm) and wide (143 mm), slightly brachycephalic (84.11

i.u.), hypsicephalic (64.70 i.u.) and tapeinocephalic (76.92 i.u.). Compared to skullcap

width, the forehead is metriometopic (66.78 i.u.), with poorly delineated glabella (IInd

degree). The occipital bone, moderately curved, is very wide, both on absolute (131 mm)

and relative scale (transverse fronto-parietal index – 96.60 i.u.), with moderate outer

occipital protuberance (IInd degree).

The mandible is wide based on the intercondilian diameter (118 mm), but

averagely wide considering the intergonion diameter (94 mm), with a short and narrow

horizontal ramus (26 mm; 9 mm), and robusticity index belongs in the small category

(34.61 i.u.). There is a button chin with faint gonions. Dentition is slightly eroded (Ist

degree) with some tooth losses both during life (lower first molars) and post-mortem.


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The postcranial skeleton, relatively complete, is defined by: hyperplatimer femurs

(70.31 i.u.) with pilaster (right – 102 i.u.; left – 102.08 i.u.), mesocnemic tibiae (66.51 u.i)

and platybrachic humeri (right – 70.45 i.u., left – 76.19 i.u.).

Stature: belongs in the average category (155.97 cm).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: missing lateral incisors (I2) in

the mandible: hypodontia (Fig. 61); a Wormian bone on the lambdoid suture and an inter-

parietal Wormian bone (Fig. 62); supratrochlear foramen in the right humerus’ inferior

epiphysis (Fig. 63).

M 21 Skeleton: belongs to a child aged around 4 years old (infans I).

The cranial skeleton is represented by: a frontal bone fragment, a fragment of the

right parietal bone, nine fragments of the left parietal bone, three occipital bone fragments, the right temporal flake and the mandible – missing the vertical ramus (the first and second

primary molars on the left arcade are present in their alveoli) – Fig. 64.

From the postcranial skeleton we recovered: the left femur, the right femur

(missing a diaphysis fragment), the right tibia, the left tibia (missing the inferior epiphysis),

the right humerus, a fragment of the left humerus, cubiti upper epiphyses, hip bones,

clavicles, the breastbone, two scapula fragments, 27 rib fragments, 27 vertebral fragments

and a fragment of the sacrum bone.

M 22 Skeleton. The bone remains found in this tomb belonged to a child aged

around 6-7 years old (infans I) of unknown gender.

From the cranial skeleton we recovered the skullcap (missing a fragment of the

occipital bone), the temporal flakes, the right malar bone, the left half of the upper maxillary, and the mandible (missing the left vertical ramus). The following teeth were

found in their alveoli: second primary molar – upper left side; first and second permanent

incisors, first and second primary molars, first permanent molar – lower right side; first and

second primary molars, first permanent molar – lower left side, and seven isolated teeth

(Fig. 65).

The postcranial skeleton consists of: femurs, tibias, humeri – missing upper and

lower epiphyses, radii and cubiti diaphyses, the right hip bone iliac crest, a fragment of the

left hip bone, a fragment of the sacrum bone – first vertebra, two scapula fragments,

clavicles, 24 rib fragments, and 10 vertebral fragments.

M 23 Skeleton – very fragmented, it belonged to a child aged around 6 years old

(infans I).

Cranial skeleton: two fragments of the frontal bone, 16 fragments of the parietal bones, two fragments of the occipital bone, two temporal flakes, two malar bones, skull

base and the mandible missing the left vertical ramus (Fig. 66).

Teeth present in their alveoli: canine, first and second primary molars, first

permanent molar – lower right side; first permanent molar – lower left side.

Isolated teeth: second primary molar and first permanent molar – upper right side;

canine, second primary molar and first permanent molar – upper left side.

Postcranial skeleton: femurs, left tibia – incomplete, a fragment of the left fibula,

hip bones, humeri, right cubitus, right scapula, two right radius fragments, 26 vertebral

fragments, 31 rib fragments, phalanges, carpal and metacarpal bones.

M 24 Skeleton – belonged to a child (6-7 years old: infans I). It is represented

both by cranial fragments (four frontal bone fragments, eight parietal bone fragments, four occipital bone fragments, temporal flakes, a right malar bone, the right half of the upper


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maxillary and the mandible – missing a fragment of the right horizontal ramus – Fig. 67)

and by postcranial skeleton fragments (femurs – missing inferior epiphyses, right tibia

diaphysis, a fragment of the left tibia diaphysis, a fragment of the right fibula diaphysis,

two hip bones – incomplete, the right humerus, the left humerus diaphysis, the right radius

– missing distal epiphysis, the right cubitus – missing distal epiphysis, the right cubicle,

two scapula fragments, 10 rib fragments, 17 vertebral fragments, and four phalanges).

Teeth present in their alveoli: first and second primary molars, first permanent

molar (erupted bud) – upper right side; first and second primary molars – lower left side.

M 25 Skeleton. The bones found in this tomb belonged to a child aged around 3

years old (infans I, considering the teeth development stage and femur length).

Of the cranium we recovered: eight fragments of the frontal bone, six fragments of the parietal bones, three fragments of the occipital bone, the left temporal flake, the right

malar bone and the mandible’s horizontal ramus (five primary teeth present in their alveoli:

first and second molars – right arcade; canine, first and second molars – left arcade) - Fig.

68.

The postcranial skeleton is represented by femurs, the right tibia (missing inferior

epiphysis), the left tibia (missing superior epiphysis), the right hip bone, humeri diaphyses,

the left cubitus (missing distal epiphysis), the right clavicle, 15 rib fragments and 23

vertebral fragments.

M 26 Skeleton – belongs to a male subject aged 55-60 years old (senilis).

The cephalic skeleton is represented by an incomplete calvaria - Fig. 69 (missing:

a fragment of the right temporal bone and a fragment of the occipital bone), the upper maxillary and the mandible (Fig. 70).

The neurocranium, moderately brachycephalic (80.54 i.u.) is long (185 mm) and

wide (149 mm), with oval (81.53 i.u.) and eurymetope (71.14 i.u.) forehead and wide and

curved occipital (77.85 i.u.). Neurocranium height is considerable (125.50 i.u.);

longitudinal and transverse porion-bregma indices can be defined as hypsicephalic (78.91

i.u.) and acrocephalic (97.98 i.u.), respectively. Seen from norma verticalis, it is sphenoid,

with parietal bossae moderately curved, whereas in norma occipitalis it is house-shaped.

Muscle insertions are pronounced on the frontal bone (glabellar – IIIrd-IVth degree;

supraorbital – IIIrd degree) but faint on the occipital bone (Ist-IInd degree); mastoid

apophyses are massive – Vth degree.

The face couldn’t be restored.

The palate is deep, with divergent parabolic arcade. The mandible, gracile (34.61 i.u.), is very high (39 mm) with pyramidal chin and

faintly delineated gonions; the vertical ramus is averagely wide (34.50 mm) and high (76

mm).

Dentition (9 upper teeth and 12 lower teeth, severely eroded – Vth degree) appears

to have been intact during life; some tooth loss occurred “post mortem”.

The postcranial skeleton, rather well preserved, is robust. The femurs are platimer (right –

81.94 i.u.; left: 76.92 i.u.); with pilaster in the right femur (103.33 i.u.) and without pilaster

in the left femur (96.77 i.u.); tibias are eurycnemic (right – 72.94 i.u.; left – 74.69 i.u.); the

humeri featuring pronounced deltoid outline are eurybrachic (right – 80.35 i.u.; left – 82.69

i.u.).

Stature belongs in the average category (166.16 cm).


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Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: two granulomas in the

mandible’s left horizontal ramus (Fig. 71); coxofemoral arthrosis (Fig. 72), seven dorsal

vertebrae with osteophytes and Schmorl nodules (Fig. 73); five lumbar vertebrae with

osteophytes and Schmorl nodules (Fig. 74).

M 27 Skeleton – child aged 6-7 years old (infans I).

The cranial skeleton (extremely fragmented) is represented by three parietal

fragments, three occipital fragments, a fragment of the frontal bone, the temporal flakes

(traces of oxidation are present on the left temporal flake), the right malar bone, the upper

maxillary and the mandible (missing the right vertical ramus) (Fig. 75).

Teeth present in their alveoli: canine, first and second primary molars – upper left

arcade; first and second primary molars – upper right arcade; first and second primary molars and first permanent molar – lower left and right arcade. Seven teeth were noted

separately (Fig. 75).

Of the postcranial skeleton we have the femurs (the left one is incomplete in the

upper epiphysis), the tibias, the humeri (the right one is incomplete in the upper epiphysis),

the right radius, the right cubitus, a fragment of the left radius, the right clavicle, two

scapula fragments, a calcaneus, a fragment of the sacrum, two hip bones, 25 rib fragments,

20 vertebral fragments, phalanges, carpal and metacarpal bones.

M 28 Skeleton – child aged 1.5 years old (infans I – based on the tooth

development level).

Of the cranium we recovered nine fragments of the parietal bones, two fragments

of the occipital bone, two fragments of the upper maxillary – right side (primary teeth present in their alveoli: lateral incisor, first molar, second molar – unerupted bud) – Fig. 76,

whereas from the postcranial skeleton we only recovered two ribs (Fig. 77).

M 29 Skeleton – belongs to a child aged around 11-12 years old (infans II) whose

gender couldn’t be established.

The cephalic region consists of the neurocranium bones (frontal bone, left parietal

bone, occipital bone, temporal flakes - incomplete) and facial massif bones (nasal bones,

malars, upper maxillary and mandible – missing the left vertical ramus) – Fig. 78.

Teeth present in their alveoli: first and second primary molars and first permanent

molar – upper and lower arcades (right and left).

Postcranial skeleton: femurs, tibias, fibula diaphyses, humeri diaphyses, radii and

cubiti diaphyses, clavicles, tali, calcanei, a sacrum bone fragment, two scapula fragments,

24 rib fragments, phalanges and metatarsal bones (16) – lower left member. Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: cribra orbitalia (IInd degree) in

the orbits (Fig. 79); lesions in the frontal bone (Fig. 80); lesions in the left parietal bone

(Fig. 81).

M 30 Skeleton. Based on the tooth development level and the long bones length,

the skeleton belonged to a child aged around 5-6 years old (infans I).

The cranial skeleton is represented by four fragments of the parietal bones, the

frontal bone, two fragments of the occipital bone, temporal flakes, malars, upper maxillary

and mandible (Fig. 82).

In the maxillaries (upper and lower) we discovered the following teeth in their

alveoli: first and second primary molars (right and left), first permanent molar on the lower

left arcade (poised to erupt). Separately we noted seven teeth.


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The postcranial skeleton is represented by: femurs, tibiae, humeri, right cubitus –

missing distal epiphysis, right radius, hip bones, the first two sacral vertebrae, left talus, left

calcaneus, right clavicle, right scapula, 20 vertebral fragments, phalanges and metacarpal

bones.

M 31 Skeleton – (female aged around 40-45 years old - maturus) is represented

by an incomplete skullcap (missing a fragment of the frontal bone, a fragment of the

occipital bone and the skull base) – Fig. 83, the upper maxillary, the mandible (Fig. 84) and

the almost complete postcranial skeleton.

In the neurocranium we were able to indicate: the maximal width, which is

significant (155.5 mm) and the height which belongs in the short category (105 mm); the

porion-bregma index is tapeinocephalic (67.52 i.u.). In terms of shape, although we weren’t able to calculate the cephalic index, the

skull must have been brachycephalic, considering the sphenoid outline in norma verticalis

and the “bomb” shape in norma occipitalis. The bone relief is moderate on the frontal bone

(glabellar –IInd

degree; supraorbital – Ist

degree), but mastoid apophyses are well developed

(IVth degree).

On a facial level, we can remark upon the upsiloid shape of the palate, anthropine

piriform aperture and moderately eroded teeth.

The mandible is gracile (34.32 i.u.) with very high horizontal ramus (33.5 mm),

short, wide and slightly inclined vertical ramus, prominent button chin and faint gonions.

Dentition. We noticed a single “in vivo” loss (upper lateral incisor on the right

arcade). The following teeth were found in their alveoli: second premolar, first and second

molar – upper right; first premolar and second molar – upper left; canine, first premolar,

second molar (IIIrd degree caries) and third molar – lower right; canine, first premolar, first

and second molars – lower left. There is IInd-IIIrd degree tooth abrasion.

Postcranial skeleton is gracile. Femurs are platimer (right – 79.03 i.u.; left – 76.19

i.u.) nu without pilaster (right – 94.44 i.u.; left – 90.90 i.u.), eurycnemic tibiae (right –

70.76 i.u.; left – 73.43 i.u.) and humeri are eurybrachic (right – 86.36 i.u.; left – 86.66 i.u.).

Stature is 151.89 cm, value which indicates a female of over-medium height (at

the upper limit of the category).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: cribra cranii interna in the

frontal bone (Fig. 85); incomplete central lumbarization of the first sacral vertebra (S1) –

Fig. 86; additional joint facets on the tibiae distal epiphyses (Fig. 87); Schmorl nodules in three dorsal vertebrae (Fig. 88); Schmorl nodules in two lumbar vertebrae.

M 32 Skeleton – well preserved, it belonged to a teenage girl around 18-20 years

old.

The cephalic area is represented by an incomplete “cranium” (missing the nasal

bones, zygomatic processes and the left half of the upper maxillary) – Fig. 89.

The skull is brachycephalic (80.22 i.u.), considering its diameters: average

anteroposterior diameter (174.50 mm) and wide transverse diameter (140 mm). Skull

height, both basion-bregma and porion-bregma (123.50 mm and 107 mm) is low;

considering the length and width, these values define it as orthocephalic (70.77 i.u. and

61.31 i.u.) and tapeinocephalic (88.21 i.u.). The averagely wide forehead (93 mm and 118

mm) is metriometopic (66.42 i.u.) and spherical (78.81 i.u.), with moderate glabella (Ist-II

nd


- 72 -

degree). The occipital is moderately curved and wide (80 u.i), with pronounced bone

outline.

The face couldn’t be restored. The orbit, ellipsoid, is hypsiconch – high (86.84

i.u.), with diameters 38 mm (width) and 33 mm (height). The palate seems to be very deep,

with slightly parabolic arcade. The mandible is wide (118 mm), with moderate dimensions

for the horizontal ramus (height – 27 mm, width – 10.50 mm), button chin and faint

gonions. The vertical ramus is short (59 mm) and wide (33.50 mm) - Fig. 90. Dentition: is

well preserved (only the lower right canine and the upper second premolar were lost “post-

mortem”).

The postcranial skeleton contains nearly all the long bones, astragali, calcanei, hip

bones – incomplete, clavicles, sternum, shoulder blades – incomplete, spine, 30 rib fragments, 35 fragments of phalanges, metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Based on their

diameters, the humeri are platybrachic (right – 76.19 i.u.; left – 72.09 i.u.), the femurs are

flattened, platimer (slightly asymmetrical: right – 81.03 i.u.; left – 84.21 i.u.), with

pronounced pilaster (right – 108.69 i.u.; left – 106.38 i.u.), the right tibia is mesocnemic

(69.09 i.u.) and the left tibia is eurycnemic (72.22 i.u.).

Stature is under-medium (150.74 cm).

Pathologies, anomalies and non-metric features: a wormian bone in the lambdoid

suture.

Conclusions

Following the preliminary analysis of this osteological series exhumed from the Piatra Neamț-Dărmănești medieval necropolis (14th-15th centuries), we identified 32

subjects, whereof nine males (aged between 25 and 65 years old), nine females (between 14

and 65 years old) and 14 children (between 1.5 and 12 years old – infans I and infans II).

High children mortality (0-14 years – 14 subjects) to which we also add the number of

teenagers (14-20 years – 2 subjects) indicates that half the population didn’t reach the age

of 20.

In the 20-x years’ interval, the highest mortality rate was recorded among mature

people (30-60 years old – 8 subjects), whereas the number of deaths among adults (20-30

years old – 5 subjects) and those over 60 years old (3 subjects) was lower.

The average lifespan for the entire sample (0-x years) is 25.63 years, and by

gender (20-x years), it amounts to 44.17 years in males and 40.36 years in females.

We note that the presence of osteopathies in the 32 skeletons is moderate and in accord with the results discovered in other medieval osteological series.

Acknowledgements

We thank Daniel Garvăn archaeologist and his collaborators at the Piatra Neamț

Museum of History and Archaeology, for the osteological material made available for the

anthropological study.


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CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON A PULMONARY

TOXOCARIASIS CASE

Maria COJAN Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Academy str., 1, 2028, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova,

[email protected]

Abstract. This is the case of a 46-year-old patient from the countryside, non-smoking, without a history of allergy,

who isn't exposed to toxic or harmful work. At admission to the hospital he presented cough, weight loss, mild

leukocytosis with hypereosinophilia, fatigue and dyspnea. The symptoms that have determined the patient to

address the therapy department at the County Hospital from Cahul, have appeared two months before

hospitalization. At admission, the case has been classified as a pneumonia case due to the radiology image

(inhomogeneous opacity left lobe of the lungs, the lower portion), but also through frequent outbursts of coughing

and a slight fever. The diagnosis of toxocariasis has been confirmed through immunological and serological tests

with IgG (6.14) in combination with eosinophilia with 39.3% values. After about 5 months, the patient addresses

with slightly different symptoms.

Keywords: hematological study, antiparasitic treatment, parasitological infestation.

Rezumat. Studiu clinic și experimental asupra unui caz de toxocaroză pulmonară. Se prezintă cazul unui

pacient de 46 ani, din mediul rural, nefumător, fără antecedente alergice, nu este expus la muncă cu caracter toxic

sau nociv. La internare, prezintă o tuse seacă, scădere ponderală, ușoară leucocitoză cu hipereozinofilie, astenie și

dispnee. Simptomatologia, care a determinat adresarea acestuia la secția de terapie a Spitalului Raional Cahul, a

debutat cu aproximativ două luni înainte de internare. La internare, cazul a fost încadrat ca fiind caz pneumologic,

datorită imaginii radiologice (opacitate neomogenă în lobul stâng al plămânilor, porțiunea inferioară), dar și

datorită puseelor frecvente de tuse, precum și o ușoară subfebrilitate. Diagnosticul de toxocaroză a fost confirmat

prin testele imuno-serologice cu IgG pozitiv (6,14) în asociere cu o eozinofilie cu valori de 39,3%. După

aproximativ 5 luni, pacientul se adresează din nou cu o simptomatologie ușor diferită.

Cuvinte cheie: studiu hematologic, tratament anti-parazitar, infestație parazitologică.

Introduction

Many people suffering of allergic diseases that can't be treated properly because of

a wide complex of allergens that irritate continually the immune system. It's been proved

that the parasites also (helminth – pathogenic protozoa) cause strong and long lasting

allergization of the organism through their metabolic products with strong allergenic

properties. The parasitic allergy can clinically be manifested through chronic relapsing

urticaria, swelling of the skin, joint and muscle pain, increased body temperature, cutaneous

pruritus, burning sensation in the skin, asphyxia, asthmatic cough, functional disorders of the intestine etc. These symptoms can be testified to hepatitis, myocarditis, pancreatitis and

allergic rhinitis.

Methods of Study

While studying this clinical case, there were implemented many research methods

in order to establish the final diagnosis (Gillespie & Pearson, 2001). There were used

different methods: radiological examination, tuberculin Mantoux reaction, laboratory

Maria Cojan

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clinical investigations, hematological and biochemical, coproparasitological and, also,

immunological and serological tests to confirm the previous toxocariasis diagnosis.


General data. Toxocariasis is a zoonosis, caused by a nematode like Toxocara

canis (dog), Toxocara cati (cat) or Toxocara leonine (fox). Toxocariasis is an illness

described for the first time in 1952 by Beaver and it has been classified as been met in an

adult in a larval form (visceral larvae migrans, ocular larvae migrans and, also, an atypical

trans-cutaneous form). The man presents an intermediate host for the parasite, where it

doesn't get to maturity because of parasite impasse, due to the body reactivity and its

autoimmune capacity driven on the parasite. The eosinophils are responsible of detecting, embedding and reducing the larvae's activity that through their activity form granulomas

that encapsulate the toxocara larvae reducing its activity till disintegration (in some cases). Visceral larvae migrans is primarily diagnosed in young children, but also in adult

population, especially in those that practice pica. They don't respect the personal hygiene

before eating or eat unwashed fruit or vegetables. The highest incidence of toxocara larvae

forms infection is met in children between 2 and 5 years old. This is due to the close

connection among this population and the infected animals, but also their incapacity to

understand the risk presented by these parasites. Another predisposing factor would be the

infected animals that defecate on children's playgrounds in parks and kindergartens.

However, the infection with embryonated toxocara eggs can also be often met in adult

population, especially in those from the countryside, because of the broken sanitary-epidemiological norms, but also the non-compliance of healthy living.

If considering the study done in town Cahul, you can see a slight predisposition to

infection in people from the countryside. However, the insignificant difference in favor of

rural population is supported by the increased vagrancy in the town, especially in parks and

kindergartens zones.

The toxocariasis infection cases are frequently caused or determined by Toxocara

canis species more than those from Toxocara cati species, due to several assumptions:

- there are more homeless dogs than cats;

- dogs defecate aleatory, unordered, while cats defecate in secluded areas,

inaccessible, a bit underground (eggs embryos only on ground level, in optimal temperature

and humidity conditions);

- friendship between man and dog is greater than between man and cat, so the infection degree in greater.

So, Toxocara canis is a 9 to 18 cm nematode length (female) or a 4 to 10 cm

nematode length (male). Adult Toxocara canis are commonly met only in the dog's

digestive tract, where the female lays from 20,000-200,000 eggs per day. In the digestive

tract, they are unembryonated, but once on the ground, they embryonate after 2-5 weeks,

becoming infected (L2 – second stage larvae) (Magnaval et al., 2001). This aspect is very

important in order to prevent the infestation by avoiding the pica or unwashed fruit and

vegetables ingestion.

After ingesting the embryonated eggs, they get into the small intestine, where they

pierce the intestinal wall, migrating to the liver, lungs, eyes, brain and other visceral organs,

through the blood flow (Chieffi et al., 2009). Because of the visceral migration you can see


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affected tissue necrosis and eosinophilia – as a major response of the host to antigens on the

surface of toxocara larvae (Santarem et al., 2011).

The chronic production of parasite antigen and the continuous stimulation of the

immune system can lead to a permanent immune „alert”, that may underlie the respiratory

manifestations or/and cutaneous, recurrent manifestations (Stürchler et al., 1987).

The clinical manifestations in toxocariasis are multiform (from case to case), with

slight differences according the age, the weight and only sometimes according the gender

(Sarada et al., 1993; Despommier et al., 2003). The most important biological changes are

hypereosinophilia (over 40%), hyperleukocytosis (between 20 and 60 x 109/l), positive

immunological results in 70% of visceral larvae migrans etc.

Case presentation. The clinical and experimental study on a pulmonary toxocariasis case was carried out on one patient – L.M., male, 46 years old, nonsmoker,

works on field daily as a sheep and cows shepherd. The symptoms that have determined the

patient to address the general practitioner have been hot dry cough in rarely obstructive

forms. He was a pathogenesis of cardiac (dystonia, predominantly hypertensive). He got

incomplete ambulatory blood analysis, without leukocyte formula, that were indicating a

leukocytosis with values of 10.2 – 9.7 x 109/L, after what he was given antibiotics and

expectorant.

After a period of 11 months, the patient has presented a severe cold, associated

with cough, fever and chills that have determined him to address the care unit, asking to be

consulted by an internist. From the anamnesis, the doctor has asked for an admission sheet

for the patient, but also the necessary investigations in order to classify the case as a respiratory infection with suspected pulmonary tuberculosis.

The CXR done at admission has shown an opacity waved by some slightly bound

edges in the left lobe. The patient's biological manifestations were indicating an unstressed

anemia form (118.3 g/l), an inflammatory syndrome with ESR 72 mm/h, leukocytes within

normal (WBC – 8.1 x 109/l), eosinophilia with values of 28%. The biochemical testing

hasn't shown any values with pathological significance.

Preliminarly the tuberculosis suspect diagnosis has been determined. For its

confirmation additional testing has been done by the bacteriological analysis of induced

sputum Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and also the Mantoux test – positive only in case of

tuberculosis. Both tests have been negative, so the preliminary diagnosis hasn't been

confirmed.

Tests have continued with bronchoscopy and the eosinophilic pneumonia diagnosis has been determined due to the big number of eosinophils in the microscopic

lavage. The antibiotics medication has been continued, afterwards the patient has been

discharged. The case has been taken by the general practitioner, but without significant

improvement changes in health.

After about 5 months, the patient is readmitted, presenting fever, headaches,

gastrointestinal discomfort, leukocytosis and hypereosinophilia. At admission, the patient

hasn't presented anemia, just a pronounced inflammatory process with values of ESR 78

mm/h and the fibriogen 5.6 g/L.

The radiology and bronchoscopy tests have presented Loeffler's syndrome aspect

that resembles to asthma in association with pulmonary eosinophilic infiltrates. The patient

presented changes in the gallbladder determined by the ultrasound, but on palpation he presented pains in the lower right side, with suspected appendicitis. Monitored in dynamics,

Maria Cojan

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the WBC has decreased significantly, getting to values of 7.2 – 5.7 x 109/L. After excluding

the aspergillosis suspicion, the doctor has asked the coproparasitologic testing, but also the

immunological and serological test for anti toxocariasis (IgG); the serology for toxocara

canis, positive IgG (6.33 UI) – this way the pulmonary toxocariasis diagnosis, with larvae

migrans chronic syndrome.

Afterwards the treatment with Albendazol 800 mg/day is prescribed for 14 days

and a month after the treatment parasitological, bacterioscopic and radiological analysis –

to monitor in dynamic the reaction response of the body, but also to exclude the recurrence

or aggravation of the illness.

A half a year later, the patient has addressed the general practitioner with obvious

signs of health improvement. Ambulatory, coproparasitological, hematological and immunological tests on anti canis toxocaras have been done. Hematologically, the patient

hasn't presented any pathology, the coproparazitologic test was been negative, but

immunological – positive IgG (2.46 UI) – the Albendazol treatment 800 mg/day has been

resumed for two weeks, this time associated with hepatoprotective. After this stage of the

treatment, the general practitioner has considered necessary to record the patient as being

with a high toxocariasis or risk helminthiasis, asking for an annually CXR and also repeated

immunological and serological tests taking into account the fact that this patient is

permanently exposed to helminths infestation due to his job as a shepherd.

Conclusions This case fits in the cases which start doesn't present specific features that would

suggest such an affection. Even more, the quiet nature of the clinical expression that orients

from the start to a tuberculous or neoplastic etiology. The case investigation leads to the

amplification of the diagnostic option, as eosinophilia test results, but also data given by the

bronchoscopic lavage. The good thing is that the TB bacteriology examination and also the

endoscopic aspects have simplified the proves that were excluding the tuberculosis or the

lung cancer, redirecting the attention to other diagnosis tracks. Finally, the immunological

and parasitological test results have completed and proved the final determinations of the

diagnosis.

According to studies, but also according to this study, the start of the parasitic

diseases can delay the diagnosis determination, fact that can have serious and great health

implications. Just a complete investigation, the treatment failure with inapproriated

formulas, due to unsubstantiated results. The accessability to bacteriological, bacterioscopic, but also immunological and

parasitological high performed investigations is a compulsory stage to eliminate the

diagnosis that the physician is tempted to stop at. Fortunately, this patient has benefited of

high performant medical investigations and qualified medical professionals. All this has

helped in the determination of the final diagnosis - pulmonary toxocariasis.

References

Gillespie, S.H., Pearson, R.D., 2001. Principles and Practice of clinical Parasitology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Chieffi, P.P., Santos, S.V., Queiroz, M.L., Lescani, S.A., 2009. Human toxocariasis: contribution by Brazilian

researchers. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paolo, 51 (6): 301-308.

Sarada, A.K., Kannan, R., Sharma, D.K., Mahajan, V., Goel, A., Ulma, K., 1993. Visceral larvae migrans. Journal

of Postgraduate Medicine, 39 (3): 155-157.

Despommier, D., 2003. Toxocariasis clinical aspects, epidemiology, medical ecology, and molecular aspects.

Clinical Micorbiology Reviews, 16 (2): 265-272.


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Santarem, V.A., Leli F.N., Rubinsky-Elefant, G., Giuffrida, R., 2011. Protective and risk factors for toxocariasis in

children from two different social classes of Brazil. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao

Paolo, 53 (2): 66-72.

Magnaval, J.F., Glickman, L.T., Dorchies, P., 2001. Highlights of human toxocariasis. Korean Journal of

Parasitology, 39 (1): 1-11.

Stürchler, D., DiGiacomo, R.F., Rausch, L., 1987. Parasitic infections. Annals of Tropical Medicine and

Parasitology, 81 (3): 291-299.


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EPIDEMIOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL DIMENSIONS,

DIAGNOSTIC AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON A

TOXOCARIASIS CASE ASSOCIATED WITH

HYPERLEUKOCYTOSIS

Maria COJAN1 and Constantin COJAN2 1 Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Academy str., 1, 2028, Chișinău, Republic of Moldova;

[email protected]

2 Hospital Cahul, Ștefan cel Mare str., 23, 3900, Cahul, Republic of Moldova, [email protected]

Abstract. Toxocariasis is a zoonosis caused by the ingestion of larvaes Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati. In this

article, the author is going to present the difficulties to diagnosis the toxocara in a child with hyperleukocytosis.

He has been transferred to the pediatric care for additional investigations due to the suspicion of acute leukemia.

The complete haematology investigation has shown eosinophil precursors hyperplasia (17%). Therefore, the

eosinophilia has justified the additional tests, highlighting the increased titers for toxocara canis. The fecal

examination, through improved methods, has identified a co-infestation of parasites. The differential diagnosis has

included the acute and chronic leukemia. The patient has received a treatment with albendazole which led to a

prompt improvement of leukocytosis. This explains the suspicion of leukemia through a detailed presentation of

the co-infestation of parasites and of haematological abnormalities. The co-infestation cases and their sources have

been classified as socio-economic.

Keywords: co-infestation, hyperleukocytosis, fecal examination, toxocariasis.

Rezumat. Dimensiuni epidemiologice și cercetări clinice, diagnostice și experimentale asupra unui caz de

toxocaroză asociat cu hiperleucocitoză. Toxocaroza este o zoonoză cauzată de ingestia larvelor de Toxocara

canis sau Toxocara cati. În prezentul articol, se menționează dificultățile de diagnostic la un copil cu

hiperleucocitoză. Acesta a fost transferat în secția de pediatrie pentru investigații suplimentare, în contextul

suspiciunii de leucemie acută. Investigația hematologică totală a evidențiat hiperplazia precursorilor eozinofilelor

(17%). Prin urmare, eozinofilia a justificat investigații suplimentare, scoțând în evidență titrul crescut pentru

Toxocara canis. Examenul coproprazitologic, prin metode îmbunătățite, a identificat o co-infestație parazitară.

Diagnosticul diferențial a inclus leucemia acută și cronică. Pacientul a primit terapie cu albendazole, fapt ce a dus

la ameliorarea promptă a leucocitozei. Se explică suspiciunea de leucemie prin prezentarea detaliată a co-

infestației parazitare și anomaliilor hematologice. Cauzele și sursele de co-infestare au fost clasate ca fiind cauze

socio-economice.

Cuvinte cheie: co-infestație, hiperleucocitoză, examen coproparazitologic, toxocaroză.

Introduction

Toxocariasis is caused by infestation with nematodes Toxocara canis or Toxocara

cati, the man being just an accidental host. After the ingestion of the eggs left by the adult

parasite, the larvae form and migrate in the human body. This process can take a few

months. The larvae can survive for years in the host's body, but its reaction will limit their

development in these organs. There are three clinical options of the disease: visceral larvae migrans, ocular

larvae migrans and latent option of the disease (“covert toxocariasis”).

Toxocara canis: life cycle. The adult toxocariasis female leaves 200,000 eggs per

day (the nematode parasite is present in the intestine of small puppies and nursing bitches).

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8583218

Maria Cojan & Constantin Cojan

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The unembryonated eggs get on the soil and, in conditions of humidity. They embryos

(they are resistant to extreme temperature variations or pH). The man or the dog ingests the

embryonated eggs. The larvae develop from eggs in the intestine, then pass in the blood and

lymphatic vessels and migrate to different organs. It's important to remember that the man

is an intermediate host, but the larvae migrate to organs where they stop their development,

without becoming adult worms. The conclusion is that the man won't leave Toxocara eggs

in the intestine (the coproparasitologic examination won't show parasite eggs). The bitch is

an exception (the pregnant bitch) - it passes the parasite larvae to its babies, through the

placenta. After the babies’ birth, larvae continue their development, then they pass through

the lungs to the digestive tube and they become adult intestinal worms, so they become the

main infestation source. The infestation sources are: the sand boxes or holes from parks are contaminated

with Toxocara eggs (20-30% from playgrounds in the parks are contaminated), but also

infestations cases have been reported after eating raw-dried meat, unwashed vegetables and

fruit or pica.

Seroprevalence of toxocara varies from country to country and from region to

region (the USA – 4-8%; Holland – 19%; Germany – 2.5%; Slovakia – 13%; Czech

Republic – 5.8-36%; Brazil – 39%; Spain – 37%; Jordan – 9.8%; Romania – 44%;

Republic of Moldova – 48%.) It should be noted that the infestation risk is high in children

aged 1-7 years old, but the seroprevalence (the titer's positivity) increases with age or the

patient's development period (Nelson et al., 1996).

Methods of Study

The clinical picture will be analyzed according to the clinical option of the disease.

So, visceral larvae migrans is characterized by: general clinical signs (fever, asthenia),

urticarial lesions, cough, wheezing, abdominal pains, hepatomegaly, arthralgia, encephalitis

etc.

Ocular larvae migrans determines a unilateral ocular involvement and it has been

described in older children and teenagers. In this form of the disease there are missing the

general signs and the marked eosinophilia. Besides, the patient can present leucocoria, eye

pain, crossed eyes, decreased visual acuity (the differential diagnosis of retinoblastoma is

required) (Bertelmann et al., 2003).

The latent form of the disease (most cases are asymptomatic) is frequently

diagnosed only in the context of serological evaluations. It is manifested through abdominal recurrent pains, cough, wheezing, hepatomegaly, headaches, anorexia and growth disorders.

In these cases, it is found that eosinophilia is rare, but the anti-toxocara titer is moderately

increased.

The laboratory diagnosis is based on:

- eosinophilic leukocytosis (to 80%);

- IgM hypergammaglobulinemia;

- serological examination (ELISA) to identify the anti-toxocara antibodies (specificity 90%,

sensitivity 75%). Remember that the serological tests don't make any difference between

recent and old infestations, but in the ocular the antibody titers are reduced or are in normal

limits. Instead, the titer from the vitreous or from the aqueous humor can be elevated in the

ocular; - the western-blotting technique (even time-consuming) is more sensitive than ELISA;


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- the PCR method (polymerase chain reaction) – an useful identification method of the

parasite in tissues;

- for the latent form of the disease advocates the positive serology for Toxocara associated

with asthenia, abdominal pains, rash and eosinophilia that aren't triggered by allergens.

In terms of imaging, the cases can be evaluated using the CXR (in case of

wheezing, cough) to be able to determine the eosinophilic pneumonia, pleurisy and

cardiomegaly. The cardiac ultrasound is used to evaluate the myocardial contractility and to

determine pericarditis. The ultrasound of the abdomen reveals the hepatic granulomas.

Among the surgical procedures, the biopsy of the affected tissue reveals the

granulomas with infiltration of eosinophils / neutrophils and (probably) debris larval.

Treatment. Most patients are treated with antiparasitic therapy associated with corticosteroids to avoid the amplification of inflammatory response after the parasite

destruction. In ocular larvae migrans case the corticosteroid is recommended (without

antiparasitic therapy) and if needed, the surgical therapy. In latent form of the disease, the

therapeutic choice depends on patient's age, on the severity of symptoms and on the

certainty of diagnosis.

The prevention includes regular deworming procedures of dogs and cats, but also

implementing measures that would limit the pets’ access to playgrounds frequented by

children (Pelloux & Faure, 2004).

The prognosis is good for visceral larvae migrans and latent form of the disease. In

ocular larvae migrans it depends on determining the diagnosis (high risk of unilateral

amaurosis in case of late diagnosis). The health education refers to hygiene measures.


Patient A.Z. is presented for discussions. He is a five-year-old boy who lives in the

countryside. On his case it has been done a study on clinical, diagnostic and experimental

aspects. He has been admitted at contagious disease ward at the county Hospital from Cahul

presenting watery and mucosangvinolent seats, symptoms that have started at home for

days before the admission. At home he took enterocolitis, without other medication.

Hederocollateral antecedents: healthy parents and without “blood relations”. His

mother is uneducated and without a job.

From personal antecedents we remind: he is the first child in his family (he has a

younger brother – 18 months – healthy). He was born at the gestational age of 36 weeks

and birth weight – 3200 g, head shape; the pregnancy evolution has been physiological, without long suffering at birth, APGAR = 10/1 minutes. The mother had smoked during the

pregnancy. Among the pathological antecedents we mention an admission for respiratory

tract infection. The psychomotor development: corresponding to the age stages (stood at 7

months, walked when he was 1 year old). Among the living conditions we mention the

source of running water, insanitary housing (4 people /1 room).

From the history of the disease we remind that the disease started 4 days before the

admission with watery and muco-sangvinolent seats, justifying the admission to the County

Hospital from Cahul. After the investigations, he was suspected with acute leukosis and he

was transferred to the pediatric ward. Here are the investigation results done in the

contagious disease ward:

- CBC with microcytic anemia (Hgb = 119 g/l; RBC =3.9 x 1012

/L), reactive thrombocytosis (PLT 437.6 x 109/L), leukocytosis (WBC 44.6 x 109/L), leukocytes

Maria Cojan & Constantin Cojan

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indicating a redominance of the lymphocytes (lymphocytes 82%), and also of the

eosinophils (eosinophils 8%);

- the peripheral blood smear: RBC MicroCal and hypochromia; without morphological

changes in leukocytes; - inflammatory balance: C-reactive protein and normal values of ESR;

- the amylase and the calcium phosphorus balance with normal values;

- urinalysis: without pathological changes;

- immunological balance: antinuclear antibodies, complement and immunogram serum - in

normal values;

- infectious balance (pharyngeal exudate, Rotavirus antigen test/adenovirus in stool, stool):

negative. Physical examination at admission in the pediatric ward has revealed:

- poor nutritional status (weight 12 kg, < percentile 3), afebrile;

- paleness;

- disorders of trophic function of the skin and its appendages, pediculosis of the scalp;

- without lymphadenopathy in the selected territories;

- osteoarticular transfer system with signs of rickets (Harrison ditch, parietal bose);

- examination of the respiratory system, of the cardiovascular system, urogenital system

and otoscopic examination: without pathological changes;

- digestive system: throat congestion, meteorites in the abdomen, no hepato-splenomegaly;

- central nervous system: without sign of irritation of the meninges; normal pupil size and

reactive to light. Among the investigations done in the pediatric ward:

- the CBC reveals and confirms together the microcytic anemia, and also the leukocytosis,

but with slightly lower values (WBC 34.1 x 109/L) with eosinophilia (an absolute

eosinophil 6.9% value);

- the bone marrow biopsy has shown a hypercellular bone marrow with hypereosinophilia

(normal values < 7%); without changes on the lymphocytic, erythroid and myeloid series,

the ratio of blasts was of 2%;

- negative inflammatory balance;

- the infectious balance done to complete the original one has foreseen also the serology for

infectious mononucleosis, herpes, cytomegalovirus, Trichinella spiralis, Toxoplasma

gondii and HIV infection – with a negative result;

- fecal examination, using the Katoh-Miura method of concentration has shown Ascaris lumbricoides (ascarid) eggs and Giardia (Lamblia) intestinalis cysts;

- ophthalmologic exam: eye anterior segment without pathological changes;

- image explorations (CXR, ultrasound of the abdomen): normal aspect.

Based on the inconsistency between the peripheral blood and the bone marrow, a

series of hypothesis have been developed:

- peripheral lymphocytosis is probably secondary to peripheral stimulation (at the level of

the peripheral lymphoid organs);

- peripheral eosinophils have been “masked” by the oartially normal percentage of

eosinophils;

- eosinophilia in the central nervous system represents the true indicator for a particular

eosinophils parasite.


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The final diagnosis, established after an extensive and detailed investigation, has

included the next entities: hyperleukocytosis, co-infestation of parasite, growth retardation

and fetal ponderal, anemia and rachitis sequelae.

Considering the eosinophilia of the central nervous system, the serology

examination for Toxocara canis and the total IgE blood test have been justified: IgG

antibodies to Toxocara canis (through ELISA method) - getting positive results for IgG

antibodies to Toxocara canis = 26.89 UI/L (normal values < 11), and also the total IgE test

= 1098 UI/L (normal values < 60) – the Toxocariasis diagnosis has been confirmed.

So, the positive diagnosis has had a co-infestation of parasites (toxocariasis,

ascariasis and giardiasis) in a patient with multiple biological deficiencies (iron deficiency

anemia, rachitis sequelae, growth retardation and fetal ponderal). Although it hasn't been possible to establish the acute nature versus chronic

infestation with Toxocara canis, the antiparasitic treatment has been initiated (Albendazole

400 mg per day for 4 days). We mention that before initiating the antiparasitic treatment,

the total number of leukocytes was decreasing (WBC 28.7 x 109/L).

Conclusions The studies have confirmed the fact that Toxocariasis larvae produces glycosylated

antigen. This antigen determines a cellular immune response, after that the B cells switch to

IgE production. So, the hyper-lymphocytosis and the high levels of IgE are detectable

changes in this case, changes that are similar to those from Toxocariasis.

Given that the serological tests cut the correlation between the current parasitic infestation and the previous one (the old one), but especially between infestation and co-

infestation the treatment is still available, but the doses are calculated depending upon the

clinician's decision (depending on the patient's age and weight);

Toxocariasis is, with high probability, responsible for the hyperleukocytosis, but

from a practical-therapeutic point of view the co-infestation with other species of parasites

is masking even more the leukemic syndrome, but also determining the titer positivity on

Toxocara antibodies.

Among the particularities of the case we mention: the total number of leukocytes

reached the limit of 44.6 x 109/L; the concomitant infestation with three parasites species

(Toxocara canis, Ascaris lumbricoides and Giardia intestinalis); the co-infestation is

explained in the light of the low socio-economic level and a reduced hygiene degree.

References

Nelson, S., Greene, T., Ernhart, C.B., 1996. Toxocara canis infection in preschool age children: risk factors and

the cognitive development of preschool children. Neurotoxicolology and Teratology, 18 (2): 167-174.

Bertelmann, E., Velhagen, K.H., Pleyer U., Hartmann, C., 2003. Ocular toxocariasis. Diagnostic and therapeutic

options. Ophtalmologe, 100 (11) : 950-954.

Pelloux, H., Faure, O., 2004. Toxocariasis in adults. Revue de Medicine Interne, 25 (3): 201-216.


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“AQUATIC” vs. “TERRESTRIAL” EYE DESIGN.

A FUNCTIONAL ECOMORPHOLOGICAL APPROACH

Anca-Narcisa NEAGU1 and Ozana-Maria PETRARU1

1Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, Carol I Bvd, no. 20 A, 700505 Iași, Romania,

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The eye ecomorphological design in vertebrates reflects the environment characteristics and the life

style of species, into an evolutionary context. The light level is considered the decisive factor involved in

morphological, structural and physiological adaptation plan of the camera eye. However, the convergence on

favorable phenotypes principle is available also for the eye design. An “aquatic” pattern emphasizes some

common features present in fish and in secondary aquatic mammals, like cetaceans, and also in some reptiles,

birds and land mammals, concerning the “terrestrial” eye design. A general pattern available for the “aquatic” eye,

emmetropic in water, could be described: a thick and flattened cornea, with a low refractive index, a spherical lens,

with a high refractive power, and a refractive index gradient due to its very high protein core content, a well-

developed sclera, presence of different types and highly developed tapetum lucidum, an all-rod retina or a rod-

dominante retina, with few cones, sustaining a monochromatic vision, a low density of retinal ganglion cells in

areas with highest spatial resolution and a high spatial summation of rods on the ganglionar cells. The “terrestrial”

eye, emmetropic in air, has as general features: a curved or a strongly curved cornea with a high refractive index,

an elliptical lens, a duplex retina, cone-dominant for diurnal species and rod-dominant for those with nocturnal

habits, presence of foveae typically found in species with acute vision as birds (bifoveate) or primates

(monofoveate), a dichromatic vision for most of mammals, trichromatic vision in human, cat and nocturnal species

of birds to pentachromatic vision in pigeon, the high density of retinal ganglion cells in areas with highest

resolution. An “intermediate” eye design, adapted for terrestrial and aquatic vision, “two-in-one” designs, is also

described: a duplicate cornea, lens, iris and retina could solve the air myopic tendency for the “aquatic” eye and

the underwater hyperopia for the “terrestrial” eye.

Keywords: aquatic, terrestrial, “two-in-one” eye, vision, adaptations, ecomorphology, cornea, retina.

Rezumat. „Ochiul acvatic” vs. „ochiul terestru”. O abordare ecomorfologică și funcțională. Design-ul

ecomorfologic al ochiului la vertebrate reflectă caracteristicile mediului și stilul de viață al speciilor, într-un

context evolutiv. Lumina este considerată factorul decisiv implicat în adaptările morfologice și funcționale ale

ochiului. Cu toate acestea, principiul convergenței fenotipurilor favorabile este valabil și pentru design-ul globului

ocular. Un model de „ochi acvatic” prezintă o serie de trăsături comune, convergente, ale globului ocular la pești și

la mamiferele secundar acvatice, ca cetaceele, sau, pentru modelul „terestru”, trăsături comune ale ochiului la

păsări, reptile și mamifere. Un model general valabil al „ochiului acvatic”, emetrop în apă, include: o cornee

groasă, aplatizată, cu un indice de refracție redus, un cristalin sferic, cu un indice de refracție ridicat, datorită

conținutului mare în proteine al miezului cristalinian, dar și unui gradient al indicelui de refracție dinspre centru

spre periferie, o sclerotică groasă, prezența a diferite tipuri bine dezvoltate de tapetum lucidum, o retină formată

numai din celule cu bastonaș sau cu celule cu bastonaș dominante, cu foarte puține celule cu con, o vedere în

general monocromatică, o densitate redusă a celulelor ganglionare în zonele retiniene cu acuitate ridicată, și cu o

mare rată de sumație a celulelor cu bastonaș pe celulele ganglionare. „Ochiul terestru”, emetrop în aer, are ca

trăsături generale: o cornee curbată sau foarte curbată, cu un indice de refracție ridicat, un cristalin eliptic, convex

sau biconvex, o retină de tip duplex, având celule cu con dominante la speciile diurne și celule cu bastonaș

dominante la speciile cu regim de viață nocturn, prezența uneia sau a două arii retiniene cu acuitate vizuală ridicată

de tip fovea, la speciile cu acuitate vizuală ridicată ca păsările (bifoveate) sau primatele (monofoveate), cu o

vedere bicromatică la cele mai multe specii de mamifere, tricromatică la om și la speciile nocturne de păsări, dar

pentacromatică la porumbel, cu o mare densitate a celulelor ganglionare în retină, în zonele cu acuitate vizuală

ridicată. Un design intermediar care reunește trăsături comune ochiului acvatic, dar și celui terestru, pe principiul

doi ochi într-unul singur este, de asemenea, descris: două porțiuni ale corneei, irisului, cristalinului și retinei, fapt

care rezolvă acceptabil tendința „ochiului acvatic” de a fi miop în aer și a „ochiului terestru” de a fi hipermetrop în apă.

Cuvinte cheie: ochi acvatic, terestru și „doi în unu”, vedere, adaptări, ecomorfologie, cornee, retină.



Anca-Narcisa Neagu & Ozana-Maria Petraru

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Introduction

Vision is an important source of information and the visual adaptations reflect well

the ecological diversity in vertebrate world, predicting differences in habitat (aquatic,

amphibious/semi-aquatic and terrestrial, dim or light environments), diurnal, nocturnal or

cathemeral behavior, predator or prey lifestyle and the ontogenetic growth of eye

(Litherland et al., 2009). The “terrestrial”, “intermediate” and the “aquatic” designs of eye

could be described from ecomorphological point of view and studied as a good example for

sustaining the “eco-devo-evo” theory (Gilbert & Epel, 2009). The eyes reflect the

environment and the life style of species (Akat & Arikan, 2013), into an evolutionary

context. Being an important source of information in aquatic and also in terrestrial world,

the eye sustains important physiological processes, such as feeding, locomotion and reproduction. Lifestyles affect also the overall eyeball shape (Schmitz & Motani, 2010).

In 1975, Kerr and James, examining the relationships between morphological

features of organisms and their environment, introduced the term “ecomorphology” (Bock,

1994) as an “analysis of the adaptativeness of morphological features and all depend,

correlated topics such as the comparisons of adaptations in different organisms,

modification of adaptive features due to competition and other causes, structure of

ecological communities, diversity within taxa, etc.”, emphasizing that the ecomorphology is

a different field from the functional morphology because is based on the biological role

rather than the function concept, organisms must be observed in their natural environment

not in captivity conditions and ecomorphology depends on the functional morphology

studies, whereas the functional morphology is independent of any information from ecomorphology.

The functional morphology of the eye could be considered similar in all

vertebrates, but the organogenesis and ecomorphological, structural and functional

complexity varies greatly according to the specific ecological context of each species.

The ecomorphological design of the eye reflects and sustains its physiological

activities (refraction power, biochemical reactions, accommodation etc.) during the

interactions between photoreceptor neurons and the photons of light. Light is the decisive

factor affecting the morphology and structural plans of the eye (Schmitz & Weinwright,

2011).

According to Gilbert & Epel (2009), numerous environmental agents contribute to

producing a phenotype: temperature, nutrition, pressure and gravity, predators or stress, the

presence/absence of conspecifics. Water is not a good visual medium. Light is attenuated in

water and turbidity accentuates this problem. Besides light and turbidity, there is a variety

of other factors that affect the “aquatic” vision: temperature, pressure, light scattered from

planktonic organisms, scales and particles suspended in the water and bioluminescence

(Landgren et al., 2014). The “terrestrial” eye also adapts to variable light

environments, strongly depending on the diurnal or nocturnal activity patterns of organisms

(Schmitz & Motani, 2010). An “intermediate” amphibious/semi-aquatic eye design could

be described for vertebrates living both in water and in air and dealing with a large variation of the really diverse environmental factors.

This paper offers a lot of photomicrographs of the eye’s structures, compared and

integrated with the reviewed published results, and three types of eye designs were

documented: “terrestrial”, “aquatic” and “intermediate” or “two-in-one”.


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“Aquatic”, “terrestrial” and “intermediate” eyes from dead animals were used for

this study: for aquatic pattern, Cyprinus carpio; for intermediate amphibious eye, Rana

ridibunda; and for terrestrial pattern bird eye, Columba livia, reptile eye, Lacerta viridis

and mammal eye: Bos taurus and Ovis aries. Each eye was removed from the orbit and

fixed with 10% formaldehyde solution. Ethyl alcohol was used for dehydration in a series

upgrading from over night of 60%, and 2 h in 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% and 100%. After

clearing with xylene, some samples were embedded in paraffin. Other eyes were directly

sliced using a Leica cryotome CM 1850, in the Laboratory of Histology. The frontal,

sagittal or transverse serial sections were taken and stained with hematoxylin & eosin (HE).

The micrographs were taken with a Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope CLSM - Leica TCS SPE DM 5500Q, using different types of light microscopy (bright field, fluorescence

and DIC - differential interference contrast).


“Terrestrial” eye ecomorphological design “Terrestrial” eye (Table 1) is emmetropic in air and tends to be hyperopic

underwater (Katzir & Howland, 2003). The terrestrial species acquire a predominant

spherical form of the eye. Among the terrestrial vertebrates, the ostrich has the largest eye

(50 mm in diameter), twice that of the human eye (Jones et al., 2012). Between the

“terrestrial” eyes, the bird’s eye has the greater visual acuity, birds being exceptionally

visual animals. Bird eyes are emmetropic on land, and cornea plays an important role in accommodation. The avian eye is very large, representing about 50% of the cranial volume

(Jones et al., 2007), allowing a large image projected onto the retina. Some predator birds

have large eyes directed frontally and prey species usually have smaller, more flattened and

laterally places eyes.

Cornea and lens forms a complex unity, transparent and equipped with refractive

power, known as a refracton (Jonasova & Kozmik, 2008). Refraction occurs when light

radiation passes from a medium with a certain refractive index (air – 1) into a medium with

a different refractive index (aqueous humor – 1.33). The refractive power is expressed in

diopters (D). In the “terrestrial” eye cornea is curved or even strongly curved in nocturnal

birs, with a very high refrative index. In human (Gislen et al., 2003) and birds (Jones et al.,

2007), 2/3 of the refractive power of the eye is assured by the curved corneal surface.

The structure of cornea in most vertebrates is similar. It consists of an anterior corneal epithelium, an underlying basement membrane – Bowman’s membrane, a stroma, a

basement membrane – Descemet’s membrane, and an endothelium (Fig. 1 A-F).

Diurnal, some nocturnal and crepuscular terrestrial animals have large, circular

pupils and monofocal lens. In mammals, a circular pupil is correlated with monofocal optic

system (Canis lupus lupus, C. lupus familiaris, Panthera leo, P. tigris) or with a multifocal

optical system (Mus musculus) (Malmström & Kröger, 2006; Lind et al., 2008). The lens

consists of a thin acellular capsule, a cuboidal monocellular epithelium which provides

dehydration and maintains sodium and potassium gradients by an active sodium-potassium

adenosine triphosphatase pump. The fibers form the cortex and the core’s lens, in avian lens

are separated by vesicula lentis.


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Some nocturnal and diurnal reptiles (i.g. ophidians) have a spherical lens (Rival et

al., 2015; Hall et al., 2012) or a biconvex one. In birds, the lens is convex and differs from

that of mammals.

The nocturnal eye adapted also to diurnal conditions have usually a slit vertical

pupil (geckos, snakes) that enables a more effective closure, with a maximum pupillary

dilatation under scotopic light (Hall et al., 2012).

In diurnal birds the pupil is circular or oval and in cathemeral species is slit

vertical (Banks et al., 2015).

Tapetum lucidum is a biological intraocular coat or a reflective screen with a

special microanatomy, responsible for "glow" feature of the vertebrate eye. Its role is to

increase the amount of light that reaches the photoreceptor cells in the retina. Tapetum provides only 30% of the light that returns to the photoreceptor cells, 70% of radiation light

reaches directly to the photoreceptor cells. Tapetum lucidum is absent in birds, primates,

squirrels and pig. Some terrestrial mammals present a choroidal tapetum fibrosum or

cellulosum.

Vision required functional integrity of different retinal cell types. The retina of

vertebrates consists of ten layers: retinal pigmentar epithelium (RPE), photoreceptor cell

layer (PCL), outer limiting membrane (OLM), outer nuclear layer (ONL), outer plexiform

layer (OPL), inner nuclear layer (INL), inner plexiform layer (IPL), ganglion cell layer

(GCL), nerve fiber layer (NFL) and the inner limiting membrane (ILM) (Fig. 1 K, L).

Reptiles and birds have a blood supply as a substitute for the anangiotic retina: in

reptiles – conus papilaris (Fig. 1 H) and in birds (Fig. 1 G) – pecten oculi. Conus papilaris is considered a well developed choroid which contains venous

sinuses, melanocytes with melanin pigmentation (spherical melanosomes, Fig. 1 J) and

connective tissue.

The pecten oculi is an anatomical structure of the avian eye. Morphologically, it

consists by a base (situated in the lower posterior temporal quadrant of the fundus (Kiama

et al., 2001), a vary number of pleats (15-16 in diurnal bird Columba livia; 5-6 in nocturnal

bird Bubo bubo africanus) and a bridge. There are tree types of pecten: the conical type

(pecten oculi conicus), the vaned type (pecten oculi vanellus) and the pleated type (pecten

oculi plicatus) (Pourlis, 2013). Structurally, it is composed by many blood vessels,

melanosomes protecting the blood cells against UV radiation, connective tissue and a

vitreopectinal membrane (Fig. 1 I). This blood supply structures provides oxygen for the

anangiotic retina, maintains the acid-base balance and a constant intraocular temperature. The retina of diurnal birds is thicker than the most of vertebrates (630 µm thick in

diurnal bird Circaetus gallicus and 360 µm in Bubo bubo) (Kiama et al., 2001).

Birds have a duplex-retina, cone-dominant in diurnal birds and rod-dominant in

nocturnal ones. The double-cone is the dominant photoreceptor in diurnal animals. The

most birds are tetrachromats, having multiple spectral clasess of cones with spectral

sensitivity in the region of red, green, blue and ultraviolet, but the diurnal birds could be

possible pentachromic (pigeon) and the nocturnal birds are mainly trichromatic, having also

primarily rods in foveas.

Foveae are typically found in species with a great visual acuity, absolutely

necessary for their survival. Birds are usually bifoveate, mainly having a centrally located

fovea - with a high photoreceptors density, for monocular vision, and a temporal smaller


- 105 -

fovea, for binocular vision. Nearly all avian species present foveae. Primates are the only

foveate mammals, many animal species being afoveate (Jones et al., 2012).

On terrestrial mammals, retina has been described two areas characterized by a

high density of ganglion cells: fovea centralis – in mammals with frontal view (including

human), and a horizontal strip – in mammals with lateral eyes. Also in some birds, the

central and temporal fovea is encompassed by a horizontal visual streak.

“Aquatic” eye ecomorphological design

The “aquatic” (Table 2) eye is emmetropic underwater and tend to be myopic in

air (Katzir & Howland, 2003; Jones et al., 2012). The challanges for an “aquatic” eye in

order to mantain the visual aquity are diverse: turbidity, attenuation and chromatic absorbtion of light with depth, temperature and underwater pressure.

In some species of epipelagic sharks the eyeballs are situated lateral, and dorso-

lateral, in some benthopelagical species. The eyeball form is predominantly spherical in

fish, flattened – hemispherical in cetaceans, tubular in some mesopelagic species (Partridge

et al., 2014). The size and location of the eyes are related to the amount of light which

decreases exponentially with depth; 1% of the surface light reaches a depth of 255 m (El

Said & El Bakary, 2014). A larger eye presents an increased sensitivity to light due to a

higher degree of summative neural convergence of signals from multiple photoreceptors,

stimulated by a greater amount of light. The diameter of scotopic reef species teleost eyes is

1.4 times higher than photopic species (Schmitz & Weinwright, 2011). Also nocturnal

species of fish present well developed eyes and retina compared with diurnal species (Darwish et al., 2015).

The ecomorphology and ecophysiology of cetacean eye, for example, are also

significantly different from those in terrestrial mammals (Mass & Supin, 2007).

Underwater, the refractive power of the cornea is negligible, the water and the

aqueous humor having almost the same refractive index. Lens remain the main structure to

assure the accommodative adjustements. The “aquatic” eye has a cornea usually flattened

(Gonzales et al., 2014). The refraction index of “aquatic” cornea is about the same as that

of water: 1.33. In cetaceans the cornea has also an appropriate refractive index: 1.37 (Mass

& Supin, 2007).

The anterior corneal epithelium surface is covered, particularly in fish, with

cytoplasmatic projections such as: microvilli – in ratfish Hidrolagus colliei; microvilli and

microplicae – tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier, spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias (Collin & Collin, 2001), Mugil cephalus (El Said & El Bakary, 2014); or microholes of about 300 nm,

in Neoceratodus forsteri or Lepidogalaxias salamandroides. The anterior corneal

epithelium is composed of a stratified cuboidal epithelium in teleost fish Siganus javus

(Mansoori et al., 2012), Mugil cephalus (El Said & El Bakary, 2014), and a single cuboidal

row to a short columnar basal cells in aquatic frog Xenopus laevis (Nakayama et al., 2015).

The anterior epithelium of the “aquatic” cornea, as well as epidermis, includes also mucus –

secreting goblet cells. The basal cells from the anterior epithelium of cornea are followed

by several layers of intermediate cells, and one to three layers of flattened apical cells (Fig.

2 A, C). The density of surface cells in the corneal epithelium is greater in aquatic

vertebrates than those in terrestrial or air (Collin & Collin, 2001). In some species of fish

there are two distinct corneal stroma: a dermal one, which continues with the connective tissue of skin, and a scleral stroma, which continues with the connective dense tissue of

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_animal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frog


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sclera. Between these two stromas may be a region filled with granular material or mucous

tissue (Collin & Collin, 2001). In fish, sometimes, sclera is accompanied by a cartilaginous

tissue (Fig. 2 F).

Refraction and image formation on the eye “aquatic” retina depends almost

entirely on the lens. In the aquatic eye, the lens are spherical – in elasmobranch and

cetaceans (Mass & Supin, 2007), spherical or elliptical – in teleosts (Darwish et al., 2015),

with a parabolic refractive index: 1.55 in center, 1.35 to periphery (Landgren et al., 2014)

and a high protein content in center – 100%, compared to mammals 40%, and birds 35%

(Jonasova & Kozmik, 2008).

In fish, the pupil autonomously reacts to light (no neural mechanisms are involved

therefore the miofibroblasts reacts directly) (Gonzales-Martin-Moro et al., 2014). The pupil diameter is about the same as the lens diameter. In cetaceans, the iris presents a

protuberance called operculum, which is contracted or raised in dim light, such that pupil,

as well as other mammals, is circular expended or slightly oval. In high light the operculum

descents so that the pupil takes the form of the letter U. Under high light intensity

conditions, the pupil contracts more and it turns into a double pupil composed of two small

openings in photopic vision (nasal and temporal) (Mass & Supin, 2007).

Elasmobranches inhabit predominantly marine habitats and have largely adapted

eyes for scotopic vision. The photoreceptors are composed by rods (all-rod retina). Some

elasmobranches have mixed cones and rods (duplex-retina) with different proportional

density: 3 rods/1 cone (Dasyatis sabina); 40 rods/1 cone (Trygonorhina fasciata); more

than 100 rods/1 cone (Mustelus canis). Microspectrofotometric measurements showed the presence of three distinct spectral types of visual pigments of cones, raising a possible

trichromatic vision in sharks.

Teleost fishes show that the PCL is composed mainly of single, duble, and triple

rods (all-rod retina) (Darwish et al., 2015). Some teleost fish are adapted for hight light

vision and possess a duplex retina or a all-con retina. Light and dark adaptation is

accomplished by migration of rod shaped melanosomes in RPE (Fig. 1 B, D).

Melanosomes are considered organelles like lysosomes, containing large amounts of acid

phosphatase (Dell’Angelica et al., 2000), which presents a distribution from the cell body

pigment toward rods. This movement is not present in the mammal’s retina. Under high

light, the eye adapts by movement of melanosomes toward the outer segment of the rods. In

dim light melanosomes are drawn back and the rods are exposed to light. Investigation

revealed also a dark-light adaptation movements of rods. In Lepidocybium flavobrunneum, retina has two special areas characterized by a high ganglion cell density: a temporal (600

ganglionar cells/mm2) and nasal area (400 ganglionar cells/mm2 (Landgren et al., 2014).

The mammal aquatic eye resemble some fish eye features such as duplex retina

and monochromatic vision. In cetacean retina were found giant ganglion cells (75 µm

comparative to terrestrial giant ganglion cells: 15-35 µm) which suggest high functional

integrity of different retinal cell. In pinnipeds and cetaceans, the photoreceptor layer is

present in one type of con containing L – opsin. The cetacean’s retina is about 2-4 times

thicker than diurnal terrestrial mammals (Mass & Supin, 2007).

“Intermediate” eye ecomorphological design

Gonzales et al. (2014) define this type of eye present to Anableps anableps as: “two different optical systems integrated in the same eye”; Mass & Supin, 2007, show that:


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“the visual system features adaptation to both aquatic and terrestral habitats” in pinnipeds

or eye “represents an example of terrestrial carnivores to an aquatic life style”, in sea otter.

The “intermediate”, amphibious eye (Table 3), show both terrestrial and aquatic

features, adapted for both environments. In particular, an epipelagic fish, Anableps

anableps, has a double cornea: dorsal – for aerial view, curved and thick, with high

protein, collagen and gycogen content and a high refractive power, that projects light to the

ventral retinal area; ventral – for aquatic vision, flattened, with a low refractive power, that

projects light to the dorsal area of retina (Schwab et al., 2001; Gonzales et al., 2014).

The amphibian cornea (Fig. 2 E) possesses 70-75% of the eye’s total refractive

power (Akat & Arikan, 2013). Several diver bird species have an underwater accomodation

by changing the curvature of the cornea, because “the greather the curvature, the greather the refractive power is” (Jones et al., 2007). In penguins and albatross, the cornea is

flattened with an accommodatory range from 11D to 30D (emmetropic in air); in great

cormorant, the cornea is curved with a 62-64D (emmetropic in air and water) (Katzir &

Howland, 2003). Some aquatic & terrestrial mammals presents a specialized cornea: central

flat surface as an “emetropic window” with almost similar refraction in water and air (in

pinnipeds) (Mass & Supin, 2007).

The lens of Anableps anableps is also adapted to amphibious vision. The lens is

fusiform, pyriform, oval/egg shape, oblique, adapted for the water light to pass through

major axis and air light through minor axis (Gonzales et al., 2014; Jonasova & Kozmik,

2008; Schwab et al., 2001). Aquatic birds and mammals have spherical (penguin), spherical

or slightly elliptical (pinnipeds) and lenticular (sea otters) lens. Pinnipeds have developed better cilliary muscle than cetaceans (Mass & Supin,

2007). The teleost fish Anableps anableps presents also two pupilary apertures: dorsal

aerial pupil and ventral aquatic pupil.

The amphibian iris possesses autonomous contractions, as the iris of fish, and also

a nervous mechanisms, as in terrestrial mammals, and the pupil shape can be round,

horizontal, vertical, triangular, star-shaped (Gonzales et al., 2014).

Because the curved cornea lose strongly the refractive power when submerged,

there are two ecomorphological compensatory strategies in diving animals for mentaining

the emmetropic eye in submerssion:

A passive one, similar with a typical aquatic eye: flatted cornea with a lower refractive

power, for example in some aquatic birds (penguin) or seals, correlated with a

spherical lens; eye suffers relatively little loss of refraction power in submerssion.

An active one, similar with the strategy of a typical terrestrial eye when submerge:

curved corneas with a high refractive power, for example in sea otters, correlated with

a powerful iris accomodative mechanism, due to highly developed intraocular muscle

(iris and ciliary muscles); eye adapts by lenticular accommodation. The iris

contraction have two consequences: iris become rigid determinig the maleable lens to

be pressed against to it and to curve with an increse of the refractive power and pupil

reduces it aperture increasing the image quality.

The multifocal optical systems are present in aquatic, as well as in crepuscular and

nocturnal vertebrates (Lind et al., 2008).

Due to amphibious life, Anableps anableps retina is split in two: superior and

inferior hemiretina, with 2 different types of opsins.


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Tab

le 1

. “T

erre

stri

al”

eye

eco

mo

rph

olo

gic

al d

esig

n.


- 109 -

Tab

le 2

. “A

quat

ic”

eye

ecom

orp

holo

gic

al d

esig

n.


- 110 -

Tab

le 3

. “I

nte

rmed

iate

” ey

e ec

om

orp

holo

gic

al d

esig

n.


- 111 -

Figure 1. A – cornea (Bos taurus) (HE); B – cornea (Columba livia) (HE); C – anterior corneal epithelium (DIC) (Bos taurus); D – anterior corneal epithelium (DIC) (Columba livia); E –

Descemet’s membrane & endothelium (DIC) (Bos taurus); F – Descemet’s membrane & endothelium (DIC) (Columba livia); Epi – anterior corneal epithelium; Bc – basal cell layer; Wc – wing cell layer;

S – squamous cell layer; Str – stroma; Fb – fibrocytes; Dm – Descemet’s membrane; End – endothelium.

A B

F

C

E

D

F


- 112 -

Figure 1. G, I – pecten oculi plicatus (Columba livia) (HE/FLUO); H, J – conus papillaris (Laceta viridis) (HE/DIC); Bv – blood vessel; Ec – endothelial cell; Er – erythrocytes; Fo – fold; Sm –

spherical melanosomes; K – retina (Ovis aries) (FLUO & DIC); L – retina (Columba livia) (HE); RPE – retinal pigmentar epithelium; PCL – photoreceptor cell layer; ONL – outer nuclear layer; OPL

– outer plexiform layer; INL – inner nuclear layer; IPL – inner plexiform layer.

G

I

K L

H

K L

J


- 113 -

Figure 2. A – anterior corneal epithelium (DIC) (Cyprinus carpio); B – retina (HE) (Cyprinus carpio); C – stroma (DIC) (Cyprinus carpio); D – rod like melasomes in RPE (HE) (Cyprinus

carpio); E – cornea (Rana ridibunda) (DIC); F – sclera with cartilaginous tissue (HE) (Cyprinus carpio); Bc – basal cell layer; Wc – wing cell layer; S – squamous cell layer; Str – stroma; Fb –

fibrocytes; Cf – collagen fiber; Sl – sclera; Ct – cartilaginous tissue; RPE – retinal pigmentar epithelium, PCL – photoreceptor cell layer; ONL – outer nuclear layer; OPL – outer plexiform layer; INL – inner nuclear layer; IPL – inner plexiform layer; GCL – ganglion cell layer; Rlm – rod shape

melanosomes; R – rod.

B

C D

E F

A

D

E


- 114 -

Conclusions

The “terrestrial” eye, emmetropic in air, has as general features: a curved or a

strongly curved cornea with a high refractive index, an elliptical lens, a duplex retina, cone-

dominant for diurnal species and rod-dominant for those with nocturnal habits, presence of

foveae typically found in species with acute vision as birds (bifoveate) or primate

(monofoveate), a trichromatic vision in nocturnal species to pentachromatic vision in some

birds, the high density of retinal ganglion cells in areas with highest resolution. Commonly,

the terrestrial eye of diurnal species have monofocal optical system, showing no zones of

different refractive powers in the lens and a unique focal point for monochromatic light of a

certain wavelenght and crepuscular and nocturnal animals have multifocal system, the lens

having concentric zones with different refractive powers. The terrestrial nocturnal eye adapted to diurnal conditions, with multifocal optical system, has a slit vertical pupil.

An “aquatic” eye pattern, emmetropic in water, emphasizes: a thick and flattened

cornea, with a low refractive index, a spherical lens, with a high refractive power, and a

refractive index gradient due to its very high protein core content, a well-developed sclera,

presence of different types and highly developed tapetum lucidum, an all-rod retina or a

rod-dominante retina, with few cones, sustaining a monochromatic vision, a low density of

retinal ganglion cells in areas with highest spatial resolution and a high spatial summation

of rodes on the ganglionar cells.

An “intermediate” eye design, adapted for terrestrial and aquatic vision, two-in-

one designs, is also described: a duplicate cornea, lens, iris and retina could solve the air

myopic tendency for the “aquatic” eye and the underwater hyperopia for the “terrestrial” eye.

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DO YOU LIKE TO EAT FISH? – AN OVERVIEW OF THE

BENEFITS OF FISH CONSUMPTION AND RISK OF MERCURY

POISONING

Ștefan-Adrian STRUNGARU1, Mircea NICOARĂ*1, Marius Andrei RĂU1, Gabriel

PLĂVAN1 and Dragoș MICU2

1“Alexandru Ioan Cuza University” of Iași, Faculty of Biology, Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology and

Ecotoxicology, Bd. Carol I, 20A, 700505 Iași, Romania, [email protected], [email protected]*,

[email protected] 2 National Institute for Marine Research and Development “Grigore Antipa” Constanța, 300 Mamaia Blvd.,

900581, Constanța, Romania, [email protected]

Abstract. Many countries developed their history and cultural diversity around the exploitation of fish resources.

Nutrition is the main way to maintain the health, physiological functions and equilibrium of the human body.

Macro- and micronutrients from food are directly involved in cell growth, in differentiation and metabolism. There were identified two worldwide problems associated with fish consumption: 1 - the contamination of the fish

meat with chemical compounds originated from anthropogenic activities, extremely dangerous to human health; 2

- the industrial fishing which rapidly reduce the ocean fish stocks and is responsible for many species’ extinction.

The food web contamination with chemical compounds released in the marine and freshwater environments by the

anthropogenic activities is a major problem for the fish resource. The contaminated meat has no economic value

because it is too toxic for the consumer. A world well studied problem is the mercury poisoning of the commercial

fish meat. Mercury is one of the most toxic metals for the human health, and responsible for many disorders.

Mercury is one of the most abundant toxic metals in the sea fruits and fish meat because it is accumulated very

fast.

Keywords: fish diet, mercury poisoning, sustainability, risk prevention

Rezumat. Îți place să mănânci pește? - Un comentariu despre beneficiile consumului cărnii de pește și riscul

otrăvirii cu mercur. Istoria și diversitatea culturală a multor state s-a dezvoltat în jurul exploatării resurselor de

pește. Nutriția este principala modalitate de menținere a sănătății, funcțiilor fiziologice și a echilibrului în corpul

uman. Micro- și macronutrienții din hrană sunt implicați direct în creșterea celulară, diferențiere și metabolism. Au

fost identificate două mari probleme globale asociate cu consumul de pește: 1 - contaminarea cărnii de pește cu

compuși chimici extrem de periculoși pentru sănătatea umană, proveniți din activitățile antropogene; 2 - pescuitul

industrial care reduce rapid stocurile de pești din oceane și este răspunzător pentru extincția multor specii.

Contaminarea rețelei trofice cu compușii chimici eliberați în mediile marine și dulcicole de către activitățile

antropogene este o problemă principală a resursei de pește. Carnea contaminată nu are valoare economică

deoarece este prea toxică pentru consumator. O problemă foarte bine studiată este contaminarea cu mercur a cărnii

de pește comercializate. Mercurul este unul dintre cele mai toxice metale pentru sănătatea umană, răspunzător

pentru provocarea multor afecțiuni. Acest element este unul dintre cele mai abundente metale toxice prezente în

fructele de mare și carnea de pește deoarece se acumulează foarte rapid.

Cuvinte cheie: dieta cu carne de pește, otrăvirea cu mercur, sustenabilitate, prevenirea riscului

Introduction

Fishes are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates with high tolerable capacity to

environmental conditions and it is estimated that they account more than 42% of all living

species of aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. They are typically with fins, gills, scales, they have a hydrodynamic shape and most of them are covered with mucus to reduce the friction

Ștefan-Adrian Strungaru et al.

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between the water and their body. Due to their specialized structures and adaptability,

fishes survive in almost all aquatic ecosystems. They represent for mankind the most

important food resource provided by marine and freshwater ecosystems. Many countries

developed their history and cultural diversity around the exploitation of this resource.

Nutrition is the main way to maintain the health, physiological functions and equilibrium of

the human body. Macro- and micronutrients from the food are directly involved in cell

growth, in differentiation and metabolism. Proteins, fats and carbohydrates have direct

implications in growth, reproduction, healing, immunity and health maintenance (Prato &

Biandolino, 2015). The fish meat has a low fat content (especially cholesterol), essential

proteins, various vitamins (D, A and B) and essential minerals (Djinovic-Stojanovic et al.,

2015) for a healthy diet (selenium, iodine, zinc, iron, calcium). Moreover, the main benefits obtained from fish consumption have been related with polyunsaturated fatty acids

(PUFAs), especially the omega 3 eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid

(DHA) present in high amounts in the fish meat (Prato & Biandolino, 2015). The diet based

on fish is very important because, in general, humans have a limited capacity to synthesize

fatty acids. The food rich in saturated fatty acids increases the occurrence of the

cardiovascular diseases, so PUFAs are less dangerous than the other (Prato & Biandolino,

2015). There were identified two worldwide problems associated with fish consumption: 1 -

the contamination of the fish meat with chemical compounds extremely dangerous to

human health, originated from anthropogenic activities; 2 - the industrial fishing which

rapidly reduce the fish stocks from the oceans and is responsible for many species’

extinction. In this overview were analyzed the benefits of fish meat consumption for the

human body and one of the worldwide problems - the mercury poisoning of the fish meat

and the negative effects to human health.

The fish meat consumption benefits

In the 21st Century is quite easy to buy fish meat and products in most of the

countries. The consumer goes to the first supermarket where chooses from a large number

of products, using different methods of decision like price, quality and personal purchasing

power. Due to many factors such as: globalization, foreign/local store franchise he has

access to food resources from different corners of the planet. The fish meat and the

products are parts of the food globalization where a high number of persons from a

geographic point have access to resources which do not belong to their area. This fact is increasing the world wide consumption and causes a rapid depletion of the fish stocks if

overexploited.

The world population growth is responsible for the increasing of fish consumption

and pressure upon this resource. The decreasing of the resource is followed by the raising

of costs and final prices. The wild fish is the cheapest animal protein resource from the

planet because there are not involved costs for its growth; producers are the natural

ecosystems and the costs are just for the exploitation, processing, transportation and

consumers’ markets. This resource can be rather quickly regenerated if the international

conventions are applied and the industrial fishing is performed rationally.


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The diet based on fish

This diet is considered in many studies to be the best for the human health. The

key elements with huge benefits for the body are the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs),

especially the omega 3 eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

present in high amounts in the fish meat. Their importance has been well described by Prato

& Biandolino, 2015 in their study focused on Mediterranean fish based diet. According to

their study, the omega 3 PUFAs long term consumption from fish reduces the occurrence of

many diseases associated with cancer, lung diseases, Alzheimer and neuronal dysfunctions.

Furthermore, these play an important role in the prevention of the cardiovascular diseases,

decreasing the incidence of diabetes and help the neuronal development of the children

before and after birth. The exaggerated consumption of omega 3 PUFAs may harm the cardiovascular system and may promote cardiovascular disease (Prato & Biandolino, 2015).

For a healthy diet, the fish meat should be combined with low fat vegetables.

There is an entire process behind the fishing industry and trade, with many

decisional steps (Fig. 1). Between the fish from consumer’s plate and the fishing there are a

large number of quality filters, international agreements and political decisions. The

consumer has no idea about how the process is working. Two main ways of fishing and

trade were identified. The first way is the sustainable fishing where this activity is well

controlled by the political decisions, economical importance of the species, consumer’s

preference, biodiversity protection, quality filters, fishing methods and fish market. The

second way is the fishing with no rules and controls which is responsible for the extinction

of many species and market crises. For both of the cases the consumers and market competition are responsible for increasing the fish meat demand. According to

worldometers (www.worldometers.info), the human population reached at the end of the

year 2015 more than 7.3 billion.

Figure 1. Sustainability of fish resource exploitation and decisions before the worldwide

merchandising.


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The growth of human population is responsible for the increasing of resources

consumption (water, energy, food) and biodiversity reduction (Machovina et al., 2015).

Beef, pork and chicken meat production industry is responsible for the deterioration of the

environment and extinction of many other species. Wild territories were transformed in

agricultural fields which must feed the meat industry. It was demonstrated that the

consumption of pork, beef and chicken meat are responsible for cardiovascular diseases.

The best diet is considered to be plant based combined with fish meat consumption

(Machovina et al., 2015). The fish stocks from the oceans are decreasing year by year

because of the market demand – What would happen when all the human population will

eat only fish meat? Will be the fish extinct from this planet? This will not happen in the

future if the consumer is educated and does not waste this resource. Sustainable aquaculture can be the answer and the solution of solving this problem. The surface of oceans

represents more than 2/3 of the entire Earth surface. This can provide enough food to

satisfy the needs of the future population. The fish cage culture is one of the ways in the

development and exploitation the water surface but it is confronting with many problems

like water pollution, production and maintenance costs (Stickney, 2000). It can be the best

solution to preserve the biodiversity and provide enough time for the regeneration of the

fish resource. The food processing companies may help for the long term consumption of

the fish meat by developing new preservation methods in which are not involved harmful

chemicals for the human health and environment.

The food web contamination with chemical compounds released in marine and

freshwater environments by the anthropogenic activities are major problems for the fish resource. The contaminated meat has no economic value because it is too toxic for the

consumer. A world well studied problem is mercury poisoning of the commercial fish meat.

Mercury poisoning of the commercial fish meat

Studies regarding the mercury accumulation in the fish meat are abundant. The

mercury’s start point of fish meat mass poisoning was recorded in Minamata Bay, in

southwestern Kyushu Japan, when severe neurologic disorders occurred in the human

population (Eisler, 2006). This was recognized in late 1953 and reached epidemic

proportion by 1956. During this period, birth defects and deaths resulted from long-term

exposure to methylmercury from contaminated fish meat were observed especially among

fishermen and their families (Eisler, 2006). The source of mercury was an acetaldehyde

plant located near the seashore which released huge amounts of contaminated waters directly into the sea. It was a matter of time for the mercury to be accumulated in the

marine food web and to be transferred into the human food. The consumers were poisoned

very fast because the local diet was based on fish consumption and uncooked dishes from

fresh meat.

Mercury is one of the most toxic metals for the human health, responsible for

many disorders. This element is one of the most abundant toxic metals from sea food and

fish meat (Carvalho et al., 2005) because it is accumulated very fast. In fish, the mercury is

accumulated from a combination of two species of compounds (organic mercury and

inorganic mercury). According to the literature, the inorganic Hg is not easily absorbed and

is considered non-toxic compared to organic Hg (MethylHg and EthylHg) which crosses

very fast from blood to brain causing body damages (Guynup & Safina, 2012). The studies focused on the effects of human poisoning with mercury from fish revealed the following


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cases: adult and fetal neurotoxicity of methylmercury (Castaño et al., 2015); reduction of

IQ and attention deficit disorder (Myers et al., 2003); digestive system disorder; kidney

dysfunction; sleep disorder; thoracic pain; movement disorders like ataxia, tremor,

dysdiadochokinesia (Bose-O’Reilly et al., 2008); weight loss (Drasch et al., 2001).

According to FAO legislation (FAO, 2003), the maximum limit of the total

mercury in the fish meat designated for human consumption is 0.5 mg*kg-1, excepting the

predatory fish limited at 1 mg*kg-1.

Bosch et al., 2016 investigated the concentrations of MethylHg and inorganic Hg

from the Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacores) in different muscle parts. The study aimed at

the comparison of the two forms levels in the muscle of white and red tuna caught in the

South Atlantic Coast of South Africa. The authors used two main methods for the mercury analyses: total mercury - ICP-MS and mercury speciation HPLC-ICP-MS. The average

inorganic mercury from white muscle was 0.065±0.035mg*kg-1 and 0.159±0.075mg*kg-1

for dark muscle comparative with methylmercury with 0.654±0.209mg*kg-1in white muscle

and 0.659±0.235mg*kg-1

in red muscle. The total mercury analyzed in this study did not

exceed the maximum admitted concentration.

Sedláčková et al., 2014 investigated the mercury and methylmercury from chub

(Leuciscus cephalus L.) muscle samples collected in Czech Republic’s rivers. The highest

mean of the total mercury concentration in the samples was 0.236±0.1mg*kg-1 and for

methylmercury was 0.231±0.105mg*kg-1. No hazard to humans’ health, correlated with

chub meat consumption, was identified.

Polak-Juszczak, 2015 analyzed the mercury and selenium content in five fish species from Baltic Sea: cod (Gadus morhua), sprat (Sprattus sprattus), herring (Clupea

harengus), flatfish (Platichthys flesus), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and turbot

(Scophthalmus maximus). The first conclusion of the study showed that the concentrations

of the mercury from these commercialized species are below the EU limits and the fish

meat is safe for consumption. The authors observed the importance of Se:Hg molar ratio in

analyzing the possible risk of fish consumption. The samples with a low mercury

concentration had a higher level of selenium. This provides important data about the

protective role of selenium against the mercury poisoning.

Gilman et al., 2015 conducted a study which analyzed the mercury and selenium

levels with selenoprotein mRNA and selenoenzyme activity in placenta of Hawaii women.

The authors compared two maternal groups: with no fish consumption during the

pregnancy and with fish based diet during the pregnancy. The results showed that the mercury concentration was higher in the cord blood and placenta for the group with a fish

based diet than the group with no fish consumption, but the selenium level was the same for

all of them. Furthermore, the mercury level from cord blood and placenta was not

correlated with selenoproteins or selenoenzymes.

How is the consumer protected against the mercury poisoning?

In October 2013 was adopted the Minamata Convention on Mercury which has as

main objective the protection of human health and environment from anthropogenic

emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. This encourages the member

states to bring measures to reduce the mercury compounds risk for human health and

environment; to promote health care services for prevention, treatment and care for populations affected by the exposure to mercury or mercury compounds, especially for


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children and pregnant women; to ensure close collaboration between ministries involved in

this kind of actions (health, environment, economy, industry, labor) to avoid future

catastrophes; to elaborate epidemiological and monitoring studies of mercury levels and

toxicity in food, environment and public health that will be exchanged with WHO and

other relevant organizations (WHA67.11, 2014).

According to WHO (World Health Organization) and UNEP (United Nations

Environment Programme) which published in August 2008 The Guidance for Identifying

Populations at Risk from Mercury Exposure, the tolerable weekly intakes for total mercury

is 5 µg/kg body weight and 1.6 µg/kg body weight for methyl mercury. The risk exposure

for the human population is measured through biomonitoring of mercury levels in hair, blood and urine.

The risk exposure of mercury in fish is calculated according to the formula (WHO

& UNEP, 2008):

)

Conclusions

The fish meat diet has multiple benefits for the human body because it has the

lowest level of saturated fatty acids which are responsible for the increasing of

cardiovascular disorders. If the fish meat will replace the pork, cow and chicken meat in the future, the terrestrial biodiversity will be better preserved. Though the ocean surface is

more than 2/3 of the Earth surface, the fish resource is limited and must be well controlled

through political decisions, international agreements, biodiversity protection and

sustainable exploitation. Mercury poisoning of the fish meat still is a worldwide problem.

The consumer must be educated and explained that he is one of the cause of fish resource

depletion, and he must consume this resource rationally, not to waist it. The fish meat

companies must provide more information about the possible contamination of their

products and exposure risk.

References

Bosch, A.C., O’Neill, B., Sigge, G.O., Kerwath, S.E., Louwrens, C.H., 2016. Mercury accumulation in Yellowfin

tuna (Thunnus albacares) with regards to muscle type, muscle position and fish size. Food Chemistry,

190: 351-356.

Bose-O’Reilly, S., Lettmeier, B., Gothe, R.M., Beinhoff, C., Siebert, U., Drasch, G., 2008. Mercury as a serious

health hazard for children in gold mining areas. Environmental Research, 107: 89-97.

Carvalho, M.L., Santiago, S., Nunes, M.L., 2005. Assessment of the essential element and heavy metal content of

edible fish muscle. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 382: 426-432.

Castaño, A., Cutanda, F., Esteban, M., Pärt, P., Navarro, C., Gómez, S., Rosado, M., López, A., López, E., Exley,

K., Schindler, K.B., Govarts, E., Casteleyn, L., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Fiddicke, U., Koch, H., Angerer,

J., Den Hond, E., Schoeters, G., Sepai, O., Horvat, M., Knudsen, L.E., Aerts, D., Joas, A., Biot, P.,

Joas, R., Jiménez-Guerrero, J.A., Diaz, G., Pirardm, C., Katsonouri, A., Cerna, M., Gutleb, A.C.,

Ligocka, D., Reis, F.M., Berglund, M., Lupsa, I.-R., Halzlová, K., Charlier, C., Cullen, E.,

Hadjipanayis, A., Krsková, A., Jensen, J.F., Jeanette, K., Schwedler, G., Wilhelm, M., Rudnai, P.,

Középesy, S., Davidson, F., Fischer, M.E., Janasik, B., Namorado, S., Gurzau, A.E., Jajca, M., Maze,

D., Tratnik, J.S., Larsson, K., Lehmann, A., Crettaz, P., Lavranos, G., Posada, M., 2015. Fish

consumption patterns and hair mercury levels in children and their mothers in 17 EU countries.

Environmental Reasearch, 141: 58-68.

Djinovic-Stojanovic, J., Nikolic, D., Vranic, D., Stefanovic, S., Milijasevic, M., Babic, J., Jankovic, S., 2015.

Distribution of Mercury in Three Marine Fish Species. Procedia Food Science, 5: 65-68.


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Drasch, G., Böse-O’Reilly, S., Beinhoff, C., Roider, G., Maydl, S., 2001. The Mt. Diwata study on the Philippines

1999-assessment mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold mining. Science of Total

Environment, 267: 151-168.

Eisler, R., 2006. Mercury Hazards to Living Organisms. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL,

p. 312.

FAO, 2003. Heavy metals regulations legal notice No. 66/2003.

Gilman, C.L., Soonb, R., Sauvageb, L., Ralstonc, N.V.C., Berrya, M.J., 2015. Umbilical cord blood and placental

mercury, selenium and selenoprotein expression in relation to maternal fish consumption. Journal of

Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 30: 17-24.

Guynup, S., Safina, B.C., 2012. Mercury: Sources in the environment, health effects, and politics. Blue Oceans

Institute, 1-54.

Machovina, B., Feeley, K.J., Ripple, W.J., 2015. Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat

consumption. Science of the Total Environment, 536: 419-431.

Myers, G.J., Davidson, P.W., Cox, C., Shamlaye, C., Palumbo, D., Cernichiari, E., Sloane-Reeves, J., Wilding,

G.E., Kost, J., Haung, Li-S., Clarkson, T.W., 2003. Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish

consumption in the Sey-chelles child development study. Lancet, 361: 1686-1692.

Polak-Juszczak, L., 2015. Selenium and mercury molar ratios in commercial fish from the Baltic Sea: Additional

risk assessment criterion for mercury exposure. Food Control, 50: 881-888.

Prato, E., Biandolino, F., 2015. The Contribution of Fish to the Mediterranean Diet. In Preedy, V., Watson, R.R.,

(eds.), The Mediterranean Diet. An Evidence-Based Approach, Academic Press, Elsevier, 165-174.

Sedláčková, L., Kružíková, K., Svobodová, Z., 2014. Mercury speciation in fish muscles from major Czech rivers

and assessment of health risks. Food Chemistry, 150: 360-365.

Sixty-Seventh World Health Assembly, Agenda item 14.5, WHA67.11. Public health impacts of exposure to

mercury and mercury compounds: the role of WHO and ministries of public health in the

implementation of the Minamata Convention.

Stickney, R.R., 2000. Enciclopedia of Aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA.

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Guidance for identifying populations at risk from mercury exposure. Issued by UNEP DTIE Chemicals

Branch and WHO Department of Food Safety, Zoonoses and Foodborne Diseases, Geneva,

Switzerland.

http://www.worldometers.info


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DOGMATIC DENIAL OF THE SCIENCE OF EVOLUTION,

ASPECTS AND EFFECTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL

Ion COJOCARU

Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, B-dul Carol I, no. 20A, 700505 Iași, Romania;

[email protected]

Abstract. This paper mainly aims to report some implications on how biology is presented in the public school in

which it was introduced the religious dogma. Although educational policy is trying to suggest that there are no

consequences for ethics and accuracy of scientific information presented to the students, we show here that in

Romania the price paid by the school to popularize religious dogma is the censorship of biology by removing the

explanation of evolution (seen as an inconvenient truth) from the biology textbooks. In the same time, at the

religious discipline the concept of evolution is discredited and ideologically manipulated, being presented to

students as an instrument of communist ideology and philosophy of atheism. In the first part of this paper is

presented a brief history of the relationship between science and religious dogmatism. Among the main effects of

the ingress of religious dogma in the public school we mention: the use of Trojan Horse method (the Scientific

Creationism, in the USA, evolutionary biology textbooks with anti-evolutionist conclusions, in Romania),

complete elimination of the evolutionary biology with the tacit agreement of a majority of biology teachers (now

in Romania), the flat science (non-evolutionary science) and the pseudoscience.

Keywords: censored biology, flat science, pseudoscience, religious protectionism, public school.

Rezumat. Negarea dogmatică a științei evoluției, aspecte și efecte în școala publică. Scopul principal al acestei

lucrări este de a semnala unele consecințe ale modului cum este prezentată biologia în școala publică în care a fost

introdusă dogma religioasă. Deși politica educațională încearcă să sugereze că nu există consecințe în ceea ce

privește etica și corectitudinea informației științifice prezentate elevilor, noi arătăm aici că în România prețul plătit

de școală pentru popularizarea dogmei religioase este cenzura biologiei prin eliminarea explicației evoluționiste

(văzută ca un adevăr incomod) din manualele de biologie. În același timp, la disciplina religie conceptul de

evoluție este discreditat și manipulat ideologic, fiind prezentat elevilor ca un instrument al ideologiei comuniste și

filozofie a ateismului. În prima parte a acestei lucrări este prezentată o scurtă istorie a relației dintre știință și

dogmatismul religios. Printre principalele efecte ale introducerii dogmei religioase în școala publică menționăm:

utilizarea metodei calului troian (creaționismul științific, în SUA, manuale de evoluționism cu concluzii

antievoluționiste, în România), eliminarea totală a biologiei evoluționiste cu acordul tacit al majorității profesorilor

de biologie (acum în România), știința plată (știință non-evoluționistă) și pseudoștiința.

Cuvinte cheie: biologie cenzurată, știință plată, pseudoștiință, protecționism religios, școală publică.

Introduction

The Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, founded more than 150 years ago

(Darwin, 1859), still represents the conceptual and explicative basis of the evolutionary

biology. The random individual variation, the descent with modification and the natural

selection are the basic pillars, incontestable, for the evolutionary explanation (Mayr, 1989;

Jablonka, 2008; Cojocaru, 2010a). As a result, any progress offered by the molecular

genetics or the developmental biology can not avoids the Darwinian logic. Until now there

is no alternative scientific theory to Darwin's theory on the evolution, and the criticism

arising from the inside of science over time, made only to strengthen his position. Since its

inception, the Darwinian evolutionism was faced with a vehement denial from outside science - the ideological attacks (Cojocaru, 2010b). The creationists argue over a century

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that evolution is “a theory in crisis”, without being able to demonstrate why. The dogmatic

denial of the science of evolution, coming from the religious activists, aims to defend the

credibility of the religious dogmas, in the context of the development of science and the

secularization of the society.

The scientific community generally has not given great importance to attacks on

science made from unscientific, dogmatic positions. The dogmatic denial of the science of

evolution has become worrying when the mystic-creationist groups focused on controlling

the public school (Scott, 2009). This is the reason why the Scientific Creationism appeared

in the Unites States of America, a religion disguised as a science with the aim of enter in

school, given that the American state does not permit, under the Constitution, the religious

propaganda in the public schools. A similar phenomenon is happening today in the public school in Romania. The difference is that in Romania should not disguise religion in

science after the Trojan Horse method, under the name of Scientific Creationism, because

even Romanian State promotes religious dogma in the school and simultaneously censors

biology by deleting its evolutionist content and character.

This work represents an attitude coming from inside the academic environment

against the ingress of the religious dogmatism and censorship of biology in the public

school from Romania, and succinctly treats (1) a short history on the relation of religious

dogmatism to the science of evolution, and (2) the state of evolutionary biology in the

Romanian public school.

1. A short history on the relation of religious dogmatism to the science of

evolution

The religion considers the science of evolution a simple tool to promote its

own ideology. The Darwinian Revolution appeared in the age of so-called natural theology,

according to which the laws of nature, which are responsible for the apparent phenomena

(secondary cause), they are at the disposal of the divine entity (primary cause). Theologians

during the time of Darwin saw, in the Darwinian science, a support for natural theology that

look for evidence on how the Creator works in nature. The science reveals the Creator

intelligence, as considered Baden Powell (1796-1860), theologian and professor of

geometry at Oxford (Corsi, 2008), and Charles Kingsley, theologian, showed in 1863 that

Darwin convince “by the power of the truth and the facts” (Prenant, 1946). The natural

selection, discredited even by many scientists, it was for the theologian Aubrey Moore

(1848-1890) a rational fact of the teleological becoming in nature, a factor that gives sense to the movement in nature, as opposed to irrational hazard (Lepeltier, 2009). Moore not

suspects that Darwinism suggests the atheism and do not prefer the rising neo-lamarckism.

In the years 1880-1890, some Catholic theologians have joined evolutionism, without

accepting, however, the role of hazard pointed out by Darwin. Those who supported the

Catholic evolutionism also supported the modernization of the Church.

This first phase of the institutional denial of the science of evolution can be

considered naïve. The Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection just seemed to

open a little door prohibited by the divinity to theologians, through which they could look

something of the Creator’s secret mechanisms put in motion the living world. The idea that

God used the evolution as a tool of Creation is still taken up by different authors (Benedict,

2014).


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The religion totally denies the science of evolution. In the early 20th century, the

evolutionary biology was the greatest enemy of the theology, because it eliminated the role

of God in nature and so it was seen as the main factor supporting the atheism in society.

The idea of evolution, more detailed argued, explains the diversity of life, the origin of man

and also suggests the origin of life by a long chemical evolution.

The dogmatic denial of the science of evolution is a major public movement

involving religious dogmatics, defenders of eternal interests of religious institutions,

politicians – hunters of electoral successes, representatives of academia, either materially

corrupt or naive sentimentalists. The science was not directly affected by this dogmatic

denial. As Galilei remarked, science has not been an alternative to religion. The dogmatic

denial of the science of evolution, by the emergence of the scientific creationism, had as fundamental objective the control of the public schools by the religious organizations.

Among the defining ideas of this dogma, we mention: the creation of the world ex

nihilo to the will of an Agent from outside of matter; the recent age of the Earth, about 6000

years; the species of living beings were distinctly created by divinity and they are subjected

to change in predetermined limits; the fossils stored in the geological strata belong to the

creatures who died at the biblical flood that covered the whole earth; the geology has as

central explanation the catastrophism; the origin of living beings from a common ancestor

through evolution based on natural selection is not accepted; the man and the monkey have

distinct origins; the species were created directly by the Creator, after a divine Project and a

divine Purpose; there are perfect adaptations in the living world, and no natural selection,

nor macroevolution or hazard. The Scientific Creationism is not a unitar dogma, it comprises a variety of internal

forms, from the vehement contestation of the science of evolution and the acceptance of the

literal biblical text (Young Earth Creationism and Omphalos hypothesis), to the partial

admission of some aspects of the evolutionary thesis, as microevolution (Old Earth

Creationism, Gap Creationism, Progressive Creationism, Intelligent Design) (Shermer,

2015). In its inflexible and primitive form, the Scientific Creationism is based on a literal

interpretation of the Bible. It makes the metaphysical assumption that there is a priori a

creator of life whose origin is under examination. The Scientific Creationism rejects or

reinterprets the scientific evidence, the theories and the scientific paradigms about the

history of Earth, cosmology and the biological evolution.

This ideological movement emerged in the United States since 1920, when the

Darwinism was prohibited by law in schools (see “Scopes Monkey Trial” in 1925: Lepeltier, 2009; Shermer, 2015). The Creationism named "scientific" (in the sense of Henry

M. Morris) it is a Trojan Horse strategy of religious dogma’s penetration in schools,

dressed in the clothes of science, given that the US state prohibits by the Constitution the

religious propaganda in public schools. Thus, the Institute for Creation Research, in 1974,

published a manual for public schools – the "Scientific Creationism", in which there are no

references to the Bible or God in order to not to enter conflict with the Constitution. In the

American public schools was taught creationism alongside evolutionary biology until 1987

when the Supreme Court of the United States has banned the teaching of creationism

scientific, considered a form of religion (Lepeltier, 2009). The consensus of the opinion of

the international scientific community is that the Scientific Creationism is a religion, and

not a science’s point of view, because it lacks the empirical support, it not hypothesizes, and it refers to supernatural, untested causes. Virtually all the professional biologists

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consider the Scientific Creationism a fake. The only widespread “achievement” of the

Scientific Creationism is the undermining of authentic understanding (Atkins, 2013).

The religion partially admits the explanation of science and pretends that

complements it. The literal acceptance of the biblical text about the world creation in six

days, in the context of heady progress of scientific knowledge, has produced dissensions in

the creationist circles. Certain biblical utterances had to take a figurative sense, poetic or

metaphorical. As a reaction of ideological adaptation, a creationism of compromise is born,

which admits certain affirmations of the science of evolution, to avoid the mythical story

elements. We note here the Old Earth Creationism and the Progressive Creationism. The

Old Earth Creationism admits the great age of the Earth, scientifically dated; the existence

of Biblic Flood; the species are created directly by the Creator; it admits the microevolution (evolution within species) but it does not admit the macroevolution (evolution of the

species one from another). It denies the creationism of the biblical text, giving the

impression of modernization. The Progressive Creationism admits the very old age of the

Earth, scientifically dated, and it does not admit the Flood; the species originate in the

direct creation plus evolution; it not admits a common ancestor. It denies the creationism of

the biblical text, giving also the impression of modernization.

The total failure of the Scientific Creationism of the late 1980s in the United

States, in an attempt to corrupt the system of national American education, has generated a

reaction to reorient the American Christian dogmatism. The result was the emergence of the

Intelligent Design in the early 90s. The authors of this neo-creationism (Forest & Gross,

2004) admit the evolution, but not totally self-determined, admit a project, a divine purpose, perfect adaptations; the creative force in the living world is not the natural selection, but an

intelligent cause and the hazard are seen as a purpose of this universal intelligence; and the

universal intelligence is no other than God.

The evolutionary theory is not denied, but this is considered insufficient and

limited. According to this thesis, the science needs the divine help, and the evolutionary

science can not explain what they call "irreducible complexity" and "specified complexity"

(Alexander, 2010). A structure with irreducible complexity could not arise through gradual

evolution based on natural selection, from certain simpler stages. As examples, there are

brought: the structure of bacterial flagella, blood coagulation system, the immune system

(Shermer, 2015). Because the each part of a system is necessary to the system functioning

as a whole, it would result that the system could not evolve through selection in stages.

The Intelligent Design does not manage to rise to the level of a scientific theory, it does not provide the mechanism by which the postulated supernatural interventions would

create the complexity. The science succesfuly gets to explain what the followers of

Intelligent Design thought that is irreducible complexity, by enunciations made still Darwin

as the intensification of the function followed by the change of function. The

complexity would be "irreducible" if any given system component would not be achieved

and other independent functions. The studies showed that in all cases invoked, the system

components considered irreducible, originally had other functions (Ayala, 2008; Shermer,

2015). Today the Intelligent Project is discredited, both the scientific and religious

communities, who look their god made a second hand creator agent, after the forces of

Nature.

The religion formally recognized the evolutionary explanation – the theistic evolution. This stage of the formal recognition of the science value by the theology, is


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characterized by two strategic directions of the theology: the invocation of a dialogue

between science and religion, which should lead to a harmony between science and

religion; the undermining, concomitantly, the science values by promoting the

pseudoscience, as a bridge between science and religion.

“Dialogue and harmony between science and religion”. In the 13th century,

Thomas Aquinas demanded a harmony between science and religion because, according to

him, both converge towards one single truth – the truth of religion. The contemporary

creationist strategy consists of cover up the defeat of religion in the historical dispute with

the science. To divert attention from this ideological failure, the religious activists invoke,

unilaterally, a "science-religion dialogue" with the community of the scientists. The role of

this alleged dialogue is to give the impression that religious point of view is important, even relevant in the process of the knowledge, and the religious issues to seem to be of actuality.

The theologians demand, under that alleged dialogue, the establishment of a "harmony

between science and religion" to maintain the illusion of reconciliation between religion

and science, between the Church and secular society. Many times, in the support of

theologians also come even academics, who, without any scientific justification, tried to put

secular science in the service of theology (Vernet, 1986).

The failed theology, now called "theology of nature" (Russell, 2013), "the new

natural theology" or "contextual theology" (Polkinghorne, 2010) mime a reaction of

adaptation to cultural and modern scientific standards, often operating with scientific

terminology and new theological interpretations (Russell, 2013). But, as Michael Shermer

points, the mere use of scientific terms does not means science (Shermer, 2009). The so-called new natural theology is no longer considered absolute and supreme in matters of

knowledge, as in the Middle Ages, but it is limited to a specific framework and necessary

complementary to the scientific approach: “The new natural theology did not try to compete

with science on its land, but rather to be its complementary, putting her findings in a more

understandable context” (Polkinghorne, 2010). Also, “the theology is an effort undertaken

in search of truth, and when it is done in the context of science it is likely to see quite

clearly the need for openness to correction and change” (Polkinghorne, 2010).

The open theology, as it was called by Polkinghorne (2010), conceives a God in

providential interaction with predetermined natural processes and with the acts allowed by

divinity of free agents. It's called “open” to not seem dogmatic and to be able to accept

today any it denied yesterday: “The biblical texts, which are often very concise when

expressing profound truths and challenging, need continuous interpretation, carried out individually by each Christian” (Polkinghorne, 2010). The promoters of the open theology

are adepts of an a priori dualistic perspective, accepting the theses and apparatus

methodology of the modern biology, but placing God in the background; instead, an

evolutionary biologist, R. Dawkins, with atheist and strictly scientific vision becomes

cataloged “reductionist” (Knight, 2009).

The harmony invoked by the new theology is false, the science being placed in the

theological thought patterns, in order to hide the irreducible contradictions between the two

areas. Objectives are attributed to Science, which it does not have (both science and

religion “search motivated faith” – Polkinghorne, 2006), and the manipulation of terms to

create confusion is not abandoned, “all religions have their dogmas, as do all sciences” –

Pollack, 2007). If both the religion and science have their own dogmas would mean that they are equal in regard to the relevance of the knowledge capacity. But in science the term

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"dogma" is totally different from the one assigned by religious sphere. The scientific dogma

is a false conception or limited true, transient, that science will eliminate or redefine, while

religious dogma is an explanation that claims to be the absolute truth (Russell, 2012),

without any "error probability" (Russell, 2015), does not require evidence and tries to

subordinate in any way, the entire process of knowledge, to rudimentary equipment of

enunciations which it contains.

In the new theological strategy, the logic and the scientific theory are regarded as

divine plane (theistic evolution), such subordination of science to the religious framework

(Scott, 2009) being classified by the theology as “harmony between science and religion”.

The great “revelation” of the new natural theology is that Science, which for centuries has

been persecuted by the Church in Europe, is actually the work of God. Effect of the ideological failure that was mentioned above, the copyright of evolutionism is taken from

Darwin and passed in the God record: “the evolutionary processes occur endlessly ... and

are in accordance with the idea of benevolent God” (Gregersen, 2007). As a result, the

theology now reachs to popularize the heresies of yesterday: a “creative evolution”

(Polkinghorne, 2010), an “evolutionary creationism” (Alexander, 2010), divine creation is

accomplished through a “natural self-organization” (Gregersen, 2007). “As a theologian, I

believe the Neo-Darwinist position compelling, except of the pretension of explanatory

self-sufficiency” (Gregersen, 2007). Through the propaganda of the theistic evolution (also

called Theological Darwinism), the defunct new theology gives to understand that science

must be seen in a theological context.

The theistic evolution is convenient not only to the failed theology, but also for the faithful of scientific profession, who find themselves in a hopeless situation of theological-

dogmatic point of view. Here's what say the scientist and believer Francis Collins (former

director of the International Human Genome Project) in The Language of God, published in

2006: “No serious biologist today doubts the theory of evolution to explain the marvelous

complexity and diversity of life. In fact, the relatedness of all species through the

mechanism of evolution is such a profound foundation for the understanding of all biology

that it is difficult to imagine how one would study life without it.” And further: “Darwin's

theory of natural selection provides a fundamental framework for understanding the

relationship of all living things. The predictions of evolution have been borne out in more

ways than Darwin could have possibly imagined when he proposed his theory 150 years

ago, especially in the field of genomics” (Collins, 2006)".

Collins, resuming an old idea of Saint Augustine (Augustine, 2006), recommends caution even for cases in which appeals to divinity in situations where science can not

explain something. He calls this imprudence, “God of the gaps” and shows that after a time

the science can provide an explanation universally accepted, God's role becoming null and

useless. In this regard, he cites past battles lost by the Church in confronting with science:

explaining the eclipses, movement of the planets. This situation can only bring prejudice to

the dignity of the infallible religion. Collins points out: “Faith that places God in the gaps

of current understanding about the natural world may be headed for crisis if advances in

science subsequently fill those gaps. Faced with incomplete understanding of the natural

world, believers should be cautious about invoking the divine in areas of current mystery,

lest they built an unnecessary theological argument that is doomed to later destruction”

(Collins, 2006).


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The scientists attracted by creationism, which apparently want reconcile the

science of evolution with religious dogma, is facing unsolvable capital problems, scientific

and theological. One example is the reconciliation of predetermined Plan’s dogma with the

hazard that occurs in evolution (e.g. mutagenesis, random recombinations, random

crossing-over, random copulations etc.). “The solution” was imposed without any

demonstration or intellectual restraint: the planned hazard! (the hazard is part of a

predetermined plan): “…the chance is not a final, but a penultimate reality. It is God who

directs evolution through chance”; “God acts in various ways, acting the time and place of

mutations” (Gregersen, 2007). Finally it is suggested that evolution is a natural process free

of pre-imposed forces: “The God's omnipotence does not mean that God can do anything

...” says Polkinghorne (2010). Richard Dawkins quite rightly said, in 1986, about theistic evolution that is a futile attempt to “sneak out the back door God” (Dawkins 2009).

The new theology that wants to put a monopoly on the word evolution, reserves,

however, the right to give not account awkward questions: “the theologian is guided by his

faith motivated, not by reliable assertions” and “Neither the religious faith should not

expect that holds certainties beyond any boundary - because the believers believe without

seeing” (Polkinghorne, 2010). The theistic evolution or the current neo-creationism, despite

the parade of pseudo-modernization, does not differ at all from the rigid and primitive

dogmatism of the religion, and the idea of a dialogue is completely undermined as long as

any scientific assertion becomes will of the Creator, and the scientific truth is subordinate to

“the religious truth”. The international scientific community of professional biologists

ignore the dogmas of the theist evolutionism, a fact that, ironically, favors, in many countries, the entry thereof without resistance to their national education systems (Dawkins,

2006; Hitchens, 2012).

Pseudoscience. The strategy of the new natural theology and contemporary

creationism is to gain credibility, at any price, in the context of the cultural emancipation of

the human society. The dialogue science-religion can not resolve any problem related to the

objective explanation of the world, its main role being to maintain in the informational and

cultural environment a confused state, by distorting the scientific data or the manipulation

of the words’ property. This confused state appears as a "gray zone", cloudy, where there is

no a clear distinction between real and unreal, between natural phenomenon and miracle,

between science and religion. Just so the religious dogmas can remain in actuality. The

result of these actions is the pseudoscience, a literary genre more widespread today (Sagan,

1979, 1996) also in the book production from Romania. The pseudoscience has an older history in the period when the natural

theology tried to use the science as a tool for arguing the religious dogma. In 18th century,

books appeared whose title was obvious in this regard: Insectotheology (1735),

Testaceotheology (1744), Ichthyotheology (1754) (Botnariuc, 1961), Geology of the

theologians (1800) (Lepeltier, 2009). Recently it talks of Neurotheology (Newberg et al.

2008). A recent study show that D’Aquili and Newberg’s attempt to show that mystical

experiences are sources of knowledge about a transcendent reality must be regarded as a

failure (Miller, 2009).

Considerable efforts, including financial ones, are made for the production and

maintenance of the pseudoscience; these efforts take the appearance of a transnational anti-

scientific activism. The Templeton Foundation, with a current budget estimated at $ 1.5 billion (Harris, 2013), financially supports any activity, anywhere in the world, to carry out

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bridges between science and religion. The purpose seems noble but the result is the

pseudoscience, “a literary genre” which also has developed in Romania since the 90s. With

the support of this American foundation, it was published under the title "Science and

Orthodoxy - Research and Education" a whole series of books to promote the creationism.

To be noted the forced connections made between scientific concepts and different

religious themes: “quarks, chaos and Christianity” (Polkinghorne, 2006), “the naturalistic

theory of creation” (Gregersen, 2007), “the biological Judaism” (Pollack, 2007) etc., and

“mystical-scientific explanations”; “God can influence the world, continuously, ascendant,

by the quantum processes” (Gregersen, 2007), and the evolution of life it is thus directed:

“because the quantum phenomena can cause genetic mutations, and God, in mysterious

ways, could selects between the quantum processes, in fact undeterminated...” (Gregersen, 2007).

If in the past, the pseudoscience took advantage of the weak development of the

science, now it is an obvious form of ideological manipulation since there are alternative

explanations - those offered by Science. The pseudoscience eludes critical thinking,

relativize the validated methods of science, is not based on testable hypotheses, does not

presuppose research programs competing, does not have academic recognition, is based on

number of followers, it depends on the credulity, are addressed to emotional needs and

make reference to the miraculous or supernatural, may represent a response to an

ideological command. „For what a man had rather were true he more readily believes”

Francis Bacon said (in Novum Organum Scientiarum, 1620), a fighter with scholastics

pseudoscience, “that mixes the knowledge of nature with Theology” (Bacon, 1957). For some pseudoscience it is important because it gives the impression that

reconciles religion with science. A main factor of generating and maintenance into society

of the pseudoscience and scientific illiteracy is the introduction of the religious dogmas and

the censorship of science in the public school. As the great American scientist Carl Sagan

said in his book The Demon-Haunted World - Science as a Candle in the Dark (1996):

“Religions are often the state-protected nurseries of pseudoscience, although there's no

reason why religions have to play that role” (Sagan, 1996). To all these it is added the lack

of reaction of the academic environment. Since 1767, the illuminist scientist Samuel

Formey said “The Academies have the task of making to reign a purified, solid knowledge”

(Vovelle, 2000).

2. Evolutionary Biology in the public school from Romania In the public school from Romania the science of evolution was removed from the

general education of primary and secondary school, instead the students are indoctrinated

with religious dogma. Although the concept of evolution is the most important concept in

biology (Mayr, 2001) and “the most powerful integrating idea in all of biology” (Sagan,

1996), in the public school no lesson is allocated for presenting the mechanism of evolution

based on variability and natural selection. Charles Darwin, surnamed in the global

biological literature “the father of biology”, remains a big unknown for students in

Romania.

The science of evolution has been removed from the public school because it

indirectly ridiculed the so-called religious discipline. The evolutionary biology bothers the

religious dogmas in three major issues: the origin of life, the origin of species diversity and the human origins. The elimination of the science of evolution from the public school - the


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censorship of biology, is the price paid by biology so that the religious discipline to be able

to operate in the school without the risk of falling into the ridiculous (religious

protectionism).

The biology without the evolutionist orientation was reduced to the state of Flat

Science, metaphysically isolated by its own general conclusions and by the convergent

conclusions of other sciences. Although the Education Law provides, in Art. 3: paragraph

(n), “the principle of freedom of thought and independence from ideologies, religious

dogmas and the political doctrines”, the leaders in education have subordinated the

fundamental conclusions of the science to dogmas and to religious superstition.

The science of evolution has been removed from school without any scientific or

pedagogical justification. The concept of evolution or the Darwinism is repudiated and any reference to evolution is minimized or directly denied in the public school. The various

aspects of evolution are not presented as facts, but as simple hypotheses, views, opinions of

some (Iftime & Iftime, 2001: 44). Today, modern biology is based on the synthesis of

classical Darwinism (natural selection theory) and genetics. Genetics has allowed

explaining the variability - the source of natural selection and evolutionary factor, but

biology textbooks show this fact superficially (Dumitrache et al., 2006) or not at all.

The public school from Romania has a dual character, claiming to have legitimacy

only the scientific values which do not bother the Church ideology. The students are

indoctrinated and misinformed with the thesis that the science of evolution is harmful

because it was supported by the Communists, and also, the science of evolution is not

actually a science, but a philosophy of the atheists, which has one goal – “to denigrate and destroy the religion” (Muha, 2012). By the introduction of the religious manipulation in

school, the public school was thrown into the political populism. Regarding such facts,

Darwin said: “in Science does not apply dictum Vox populi vox Dei”.

The elimination of evolution from the school curriculum, in the conditions of

teaching religious dogma, it is, in fact, the prohibition of the right of science reply against

the religious indoctrination in the school space. For example, in the chapter “The dialogue

between the faith and science” of the Religion Auxiliary Handbook, for students of Class

XII, by Cornelius Muha (2012: 44-46), the Ministry of Education approved as students to

learn: “The evolutionism is not based on any real basis”, “Not found any fossils to support

evolution”; “Could not demonstrate the existence of new species that evolved from others”;

“No fossil nor any physical evidence does link man to apes”. “Adaptation does not mean

evolution. The biology can not explain the transformation of an animal without eyes into an animal with eyes”, etc. Independently of our opinion about the science education in public

school, we have here clear examples of anti-science approved by the Ministry to students.

On these assertions published in a manual of religion, the dual school does not offer to

Science any right of reply, and students must accept these allegations as absolute truth with

no alternative. Just a biology censored may be in the apparent harmony with the religious

dogma in the curriculum. Without the science of evolution, Biology is a flat science, an

accumulation of data: descriptions of shapes, functions, mechanisms and laboratory

techniques, and nothing about the historical transformation of the living world. The

mentality of flat science in education led either to avoid the term "evolution" in the

textbooks, or at falsifying its significance. So, the manual “Sciences” for the 12th class

(Garabet et al., 2007) says nothing about the evolution of species, but has a lesson titled “Evolution from egg-cell to mature biological organism”, the biological evolution being

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shown to students as ontogenetic development like two centuries ago, inexcusable error in

science today. Only in this way, by force of censorship and misinformation, Biology does

not threaten the anachronistic dogmas of the religion. “If we could censor Darwin, what

other kinds of knowledge could also be censored?” wondered the well-known American

scientist Carl Sagan (Sagan, 1996).

Surprisingly and unacceptable is that censorship of Biology related to the

evolutionist explanation has been implemented with the tacit agreement of the biology

teachers - textbook authors or members of the advisory committees for programs and

textbooks in the Ministry. Before the elimination of the science of evolution from the

curriculum, the evolutionary biology has been undermined by the Trojan Horse method,

even in the textbook of evolutionary biology. Thus, the authors of the evolutionary biology textbook for 11th and 12th classes (Iftime & Iftime, 2001) have recognized in a book with

religious subjects written by them (Evolutionism and Orthodoxy 2009: 9), that in their

manual of evolutionary biology, above cited, “we have demonstrated that the hypothesis of

biological evolution was unable be proven in no way”. However, this manual has been

approved by experts from the Ministry in the field of biology. It is a case of negligence or

tacit and systematic approval of creationism in the school and denigration of the

evolutionary science? In these conditions, the biology teacher has a decisive role on how

the science is presented to students in the classroom. But, an American study (Raymond &

Dunn, 1990), as well as our own observations, shows that sources of pseudoscience in

schools can be even the biology teachers.

The Evolutionary Biology conclusions represents an incommode truth for the public dual school from Romania. It is amazing that in the middle era of science and

technology, of culture and rational thinking, more and more voices from the scientific

world non-political and non-religious ask today the emergence of a new Enlightenment that

obviates the official obscurantism from education supported by governments (Sagan, 1996;

Hitchens, 2012; Wilson, 2013).

Conclusions

The dogmatic denial of the Science of Evolution does not affect the biology as a

science, but becomes a major problem when it influences the teaching of science in public

schools. “The mixing of science with religion leads to absurdities”, says Nyala Farouki,

historian of science (Farouki, 2008). The flat biology (non-evolutionist biology), made

under the order religious dogma, is not at liberty to provide students answers to the current knowledge, fundamental issues such as the origin of biological diversity, the origin of life

and human, history of our planet, man's place in nature. From the history of dogmatic

denial of the Science of Evolution is clear that the fundamental goal of this movement is to

maintain credibility of religious dogmas in society and, implicitly, of the respective

religious institutions.

The dogmatic denial of the Science of Evolution lacks proper valuable content, is

full of internal contradictions, being split into numerous creationist current contradicting

each other, not only with the science, and the reporting to science is purely conjectural. The

creationist strategies, made ad hoc, ranging from the denial of self-determined evolution as

a natural phenomenon up to formal acceptance of evolution as a phenomenon (theistic

evolution), non-self-determined, but part of a illusory divine plan. It is not possible a rational and constructive dialogue between science and religion. The theme of this dialogue


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is a sociological strategy, not a cultural one or gnoseological. The neo-creationism current

no longer opposes the religion of science, as these would be domains of conflict, but seek to

relativize the theory of evolution (Picq, 2007). The idea of theistic evolution is the

expression of this skilful strategy.

If in the public school are accepted the religious dogma, as a school discipline and,

also, the anti-evolution propaganda, while the science of evolution is removed from the

biology textbook, then we can conclude that biology, as a school discipline, is censored.

Such a situation exists currently in the public school in Romania. “The evolutionism is not

based on any real basis”..., the purpose of evolutionism is “denigration and destruction of

the religion”, writes a religion textbook approved by the Romanian Ministry of Education

in 2012 (Muha, 2012), while the biology curriculum contains nothing about the evolutionist explanation of the transformation of the living world. Has the student, in this case, the

freedom to judge comparative between the scientific and religious vision? The main

responsible for this situation, in our opinion, is the academic environment, with political

support, which tacitly tolerated the removal of the evolutionist content from Biology and

the systematic subordination of the science to religious dogma. The public school should

not be a land of dispute between science and religion, and the school must submit the

progress of Science. If we refer to France, divergences of opinion on the relationship

between science and faith “remain marginal, expressed outside the school” declare in 2007

the Inspector General of National Education (Mamecier, 2007).

The censorship of the science in schools, in particular the Biology, the flat science

(non-evolutionist science), the pseudoscience, the religious protectionism in the school environment are the dangerous cultural phenomena that currently threatens the education

system in Romania, and the society as a whole.

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PROFESSOR IONEL MIRON ON HIS 80th

ANNIVERSARY

With Professor Ionel Miron, a constant friend from the 1953, with whom I lived for better and for worse more then six decades, I was colleague in student times and later on

teaching together at the “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași. Our wives were sisters

and this long-term friendship was also built on mutual knowledge of our work in the field

of biology. Rarely was it given to me to meet and appreciate a naturalist so passionate to

study aquatic organisms, especially fish, a naturalist who traveled extensively throughout

Europe, Asia and Africa, either diving into the sea or studying life in the Sahara Desert.

About this known and much appreciated colleague and friend I will write the lines below.

* *

*

Born on the 6th of July 1935 in Ivănești, a village in Vaslui County, Ionel Miron is

the son of Ioan and Elena Miron, farmers, his father being also a psalm reader at the village church.

In his native village he followed primary school and, after that, from 1949-1953,

he attended the “Mihail Kogălniceanu” high school in Vaslui. After successfully passing his

baccalaureate, he became a student at the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Section of Natural

Sciences-Chemistry, of the “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, graduating with good

results in 1957. In the same year, Ionel Miron becomes a teacher of biology at the school in

his native village.

In 1956, Professor dr. Petre Jitariu, the Dean of our faculty, founded the

Biological, Geological and Geographical Research Station “Stejarul”, from Pângărați-

Neamț. Knowing this young researcher’s interest and passion for scientific research and

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taking into account of his involvement in the student circle of Hydrobiology (co-ordinator

Professor dr. Gheorghe Hasan) and after that, the circle of the Animal eco-physiology (co-

ordinator Lecturer dr. Ștefan Agrigoroaie), Professor Jitariu invited Ionel Miron, in January

1958, to become scientific researcher at this new station, where Professor Jitariu spared no

efforts to employ young graduates in the different sections created in the beginning of this

Station.

That is why, from 1958 to 1982, Professor Ionel Miron was a scientific researcher

(beginner, principal and 3rd degree) at the “Stejarul” Station, having as a main research

direction the study of the aquatic fauna. In 1973, under the supervision of Academician

Professor dr. Petre Jitariu, he obtained his PhD thesis in the Eco-physiology field, with the

thesis “Researches on the behavior of some aquatic invertebrates into a river-lake ecological succession”. The rhythm and amplitude of this ecological succession, from the

lotic ecosystems – the Bistrița river and its tributaries in the floodplain to the lenthic

ecosystem – Bicaz Reservoir, built in the summer of the 1960, were also materialized in

extensive faunal lists, included in the “Limnofauna europaea” monograph (published in

Germany, Joachim Illies ed., 1967), that mentioned Professor Miron’s important

contributions.

From 1967 until 1982, Ionel Miron led the Section of Hydrobiology of the

“Stejarul” Station. Since 1982, as a 2nd degree researcher, he became director of the

Forestry Research and Management Institute (ICAS) from Potoci-Neamț, on the shore of

Bicaz Reservoir. In 1991, he became a 1st degree researcher, transferring from ICAS to the

“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, proposing the establishment of the Potoci Biological Station, approved by the Education Ministry, and he served as its director until 2002. Since

1993, Ionel Miron became an Associate Professor, Professor and again Associate Professor,

since 2005, after his retirement, at Faculty of Biology of Iași. In 1998, he became PhD

supervisor in Ecology (preparing nine young researchers, who obtained the doctoral degree

in Biology).

His most important scientific results were published (1960-2010) in 91 scientific

articles in different Romanian journals (84) and abroad (7). Twelve books should be also

added, among which a course of Aquaculture and five limnological monographs (in

national and local publishing houses).

It is worth pointing out that, in 1983, in collaboration with 12 limnologists from

the “Stejarul” Station, the Romanian Academy Publishing House issued the limnological

monograph “Izvoru Muntelui-Bicaz Reservoir”, with I. Miron as editor. Another monograph, “Bioindicators of running waters quality” (2008, authors Anca Neagu and

Ionel Miron), received the “Grigore Antipa” Romanian Academy’s Award and “Emil Pop”

Award of the Academy of Romanian Scientists. In 2014, Ionel Miron published in

collaboration with Liviu Miron the book “Underwater expeditions”, receiving the “Emil

Pop” Award of the Academy of Romanian Scientists.

To elucidate many of the fine physiological mechanisms of aquatic organisms and

to determine in situ hydrobiont behavior in a river-lake ecological succession, Professor

Ionel Miron applied, with high accuracy, an experimental model, following the method of

direct underwater observations, using a submersible laboratory and scuba diving

techniques. The sustained efforts of a research team, which included Prof. Miron, have led

to the first Romanian bathyscaphe for research and underwater works, called and patented as L.S. 1, with the support and guidance of the Professor dr. Petre Jitariu.


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Based on the limnological theoretical results, presented in Prof. Miron PhD thesis,

an application concerning the ecological fundaments of aquaculture on the mountainous

reservoirs was designed. In 1984, it was approved, by the Forest Ministry, and implemented

on the Bicaz Reservoir, the biotechnology “Trout breeding in floating cages on the

mountainous reservoirs” (authors Ionel Miron, Costică Misăilă and Rodica Misăilă).

Over these 57 years as researcher, professor and PhD supervisor career, Mr. Ionel

Miron attended different specializations in limnological research (Ghent-Belgium, 1971;

Zürich-Switzerland, 1974), and obtained a scholarship in the Laboratory of Hydrobiology

from Ghent University. He participated as invited speaker in various international meetings

(Abisko-Sweden, Gdynia-Poland, Tihany-Balaton-Hungary, Lindbergmühle and München-

Germany), and took part in scientific expeditions. He was in one expedition in Morocco, in 1971, another in Anatolia, in 1973, and the three expeditions, with a team of foreign

specialists, into the “Limnology of Sahara” Programme (Director Professor Henri Dumont,

Ghent University), in different areas of this desert (Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Senegal,

Mali, Niger, Tunis), in 1975, 1976 and 1977. In collaboration with Professor dr. Peter

Zwick, from the Limnologische Fluss-Station Schlitz (Germany), Mr. Miron discovered

and published a new stonefly genus, Afroperlodes atlas Miron&Zwick, 1972. During these

activities, he specialized in hydrobiology, underwater research, biogeographical zonation,

acquiring new techniques and modern specific methods, studying different ecosystem

types, collecting a rich fauna material, establishing scientific contacts in aquatic ecology

and aquaculture domains, organizing research programmes, gathering an important

scientific literature and a great experience. His extensive experience was acknowledged both at national and international

level. In 1995, Professor Ionel Miron was invited and accepted to give a course on Aquatic

ecosystems, at Paris VII “Denis Diderot” University – France, for a full academic year. In

1992, he also guided, during two months, the Romanian and French students while

undertaking field work in France. Professor Miron also was a co-director of the

International campus for the environment, along with Professor dr. Michel Petitjean, under

the auspices of “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” and Paris VII Universities (1991-1996). From 2006

to 2010, Professors Karl-Otto Rothhaupt and Ionel Miron were co-directors of the

International Limno-ecological Summer school (organized by “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iași

and Konstanz Universities).

Professor Miron represented “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University in the European

Project “Ecological management of catchments in Europe” – ECOCATCH, Director Professor Dr. Anna-Kristina Brunberg, from Uppsala University-Sweden (2005-2011). He

was invited by other European universities (UCO Angers-France, Vrije Universiteit

Amsterdam-Netherlands, Porto-Portugal, Sussex-UK). He also participated with scientific

presentations in different international congresses, symposia and other events in Hungary,

Sweden, Germany, Spain, Poland and Republic of Moldova, but also organized himself

scientific events in Romania (Iași and Piatra Neamț), dealing with reservoirs biology, the

biological basis of aquaculture and human impact on the environment.

He has been a member of the International Society of Limnology (SIL) since 1970

and he is a member of the Scientific Committee of the Academy of Sciences - Institute of

Zoology, led by Professor dr. habil. Acad. Ion Toderaș.

With his scientific papers and books and numerous participation in national and international scientific events, Professor Ionel Miron contributed tremendously to the

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development of the Romanian Biology, especially of the Hydrobiology and Aquaculture.

In his activity of over than 55 years at “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași

(as a Researcher and Professor), Ionel Miron displayed a high professional competence,

passion and a great capacity for work, as well as a scientific probity and ethics, in a general

biological culture context.

He enjoys the prestige and is appreciated within the specialist communities in

Romania and abroad, due to his entire written work, problems solved, due to the numerous

and important research grants and projects in which he was involved as a member or a

director from 1971 to 2013, and also due to his 12 inventions, some of them awarded with

gold in important international meetings.

Since 2010, Professor Miron has been reconfirmed as a titular member of the Academy of Romanian Scientists. In 2014, he received the title “Professor emeritus” of

“Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași.

I could mention that Professor Ionel Miron is the first researcher and professor

with international scientific contribution who was born in Ivănești, and for this the local

community recognized his merits, giving to the school of the village the name “Ionel

Miron”. He is always deeply dedicated by this school and its people, developing a lot of

activities such as lectures, projects in biological agriculture field and ecology, meetings and

organizing ecological summer schools.

Summing up all these important results, I could say that Professor Miron is a

model of abnegation, of energy for work, passion, exigency and kindness, revealed in all

circumstances. I am very glad to express my great admiration and I would like to wish the forever young Professor Miron many happy life years, a great capacity for work and a good

health.

Iași, the 4th of February, 2015

Academician Professor dr. Constantin TOMA

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