ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA Seria GEOGRAFIE

UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA

Seria GEOGRAFIE

TOM XXIV Nr. 2/2014 (December)

Editura Universităţii din Oradea

UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA DEPARTAMENTUL DE GEOGRAFIE, TURISM ŞI AMENAJAREA TERITORIULUI

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA

Seria GEOGRAFIE

TOM XXIV Nr. 2/2014 (December)

Editura Universităţii din Oradea

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA, SERIA GEOGRAFIE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA, GEOGRAPHY SERIE

Review accredited by CNCSIS, Code 669 “B+” Category (since 2008)

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The review is issued under the aegis of The University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning and The Territorial Studies and Analyses Centre

Editor-in-Chief: Alexandru ILIEŞ, Gheorghe MĂHĂRA

Associate Editors: Nicolae JOSAN, Rodica PETREA Assistant Editors: Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Ribana LINC

Scientific Board:

Foreign Language Supervisor: Corina TĂTAR, Cezar MORAR

Secretary On-line Version: Ştefan BAIAS

The responsibility for the content of the articles belongs to the author(s). The articles are published with the notification of the scientific reviewer.

The exchange manuscripts, books and reviews as well as any correspondence will be sent on the address of the Editorial Office.

Editorial Office Address: University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning

1 Universităţii Street, 410087 Oradea, Romania Tel/ Fax +40.259.408.475, http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm, e-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409

Liviu APOSTOL, “Al.I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania) Dan BĂLTEANU, member of Romanian Academy, Institut of Geography of Bucharest (Romania)

Milan BUFON, “Primorska” University of Koper (Slovenia) Huhua CAO, University of Ottawa (Canada)

Jean-Paul CARRIERE, University of Tours (France) Doriano CASTALDINI, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (Italy) Nicolae CIANGĂ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) Adrian CIOACĂ, “Spiru Haret” University of Bucharest (Romania)

Pompei COCEAN, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) Sterie CIULACHE, University of Bucharest (Romania)

Olivier DEHOORNE, University of Antilles and Guyanne (France) Carmen DRAGOTĂ, Institut of Geography of Bucharest

Allessandro GALLO, "Ca' Foscari" University of Venice (Italy)Floare GRECU, University of Bucharest

Lisa Butler HARRINGTON, Kansas State University Ioan IANOŞ, University of Bucharest (Romania)

Corneliu IAŢU, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania) Dorina Camelia ILIEŞ, University of Oradea (Romania)

Ioan Aurel IRIMUŞ, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania) Saşa KICOSEV, University of Novi Sad, Serbia

Vladimir KOLOSSOV, Russian Academy of Science of Moscow (Russia) Gabor KOZMA, University of Debrecen (Hungary)Denis MARTOUZET, Francois Rabelais University, Tours, (France)Ionel MUNTELE, “Al.I. Cuza” University of Iaşi (Romania)

Martin OLARU, West University of Timişoara (Romania) Tadeusz PALMOWSKI, University of Gdansk (Poland)

Elisa PASTORIZA, Universidad Nacional de Mardel Plata (Argentina)Dănuţ PETREA, “Babeş-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca (Romania)

Nicolae POPA, West University of TimişoaraMaria RĂDOANE, “Ştefan cel Mare” University of Suceava (Romania)

Maria Luisa RODRIGUEZ, University of Lisboa (Portugal)Stephane ROSIERE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, France

Valeriu SAINSUS, Academy of Economic Science of Chişinău (Rep. of Moldova) Marcu STAŞAC, University of Oradea (Romania) Istvan SULI-ZAKAR, University of Debrecen (Hungary)

Karoly TEPERICS, University of Debrecen (Hungary) Dallen J. TIMOTHY, Arizona State University, United States of AmericaLaurent TOUCHART, Université d’Orléans (France)

Alexandru UNGUREANU, “Al. I. Cuza” University of IasiPetru URDEA, West University of Timişoara (Romania) Luca ZARRILLI, University of Pescara-Chieti (Italy)

Christoph WAACK, Regional Geography of Institut of Leipzig (Germany) Jan WENDT, University of Gdansk (Poland)

CC OO NN TT EE NN TT SS GEOMORPHOSITES AS A VALUABLE RESOURCE FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN A DEPRIVED AREA.THE CASE STUDY OF ANINA KARSTIC REGION (BANAT MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA)

Laurențiu ARTUGYAN 89 (Art#242101-651) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

USE OF LANDSAT TM FOR MAPPING LAND USE IN THE ENDORHEIC AREA - CASE OF GADAINE PLAIN (EASTERN ALGERIA)

Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALLA, Hadda DRIDDI 101 (Art#242102-654) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE BIOCLIMATE AND TREND OF GROWING SEASON IN THE EASTERN DANUBE DELTA AREAOVER 1951-2000 PERIOD

Daniela STRAT 108 (Art#242103-656) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RECENT TREND IN WILD LIFE IN THE BRAHAMPUTRA VALLEY OF ASSAM

Tongdi JAMIR, Kakheto SUMI, Akambo YEPTHO 117 (Art#242104-657) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LEADER: THEORY AND PRACTICE FROM HUNGARIAN POINT OF VIEW

Csaba PATKÓS, Csaba RUSZKAI, Gábor KOZMA 125 (Art#242105-659) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CROSS-BORDER PROJECTS – MEANS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ALONGTHE ROMANIAN-HUNGARIAN BORDER

Cătălina-Maria BÂTEA (BOTA) 134 (Art#242106-660) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

COMPARISON OF NINE IMAGE CLASSIFICATION METHODS ON LANDSAT 7 IMAGERY

Victor STRÎMBU, Vlad STRÎMBU, Wesley PALMER, Jean GOURD 143 (Art#242107-661) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSFROM THE UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA

Iuliana Claudia BAIAS, Horia CARȚIȘ, Ștefan BAIAS 158 (Art#242108-665) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE CONFESSIONAL STRUCTURE OF HARGHITA, COVASNA AND MUREȘ COUNTIES, IN 2011

George-Bogdan TOFAN, Adrian NIŢĂ, Ciprian NIMARĂ 166 (Art#242109-662) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

STUDY AND DIACHRONIC ANALYSIS OF CHANGES OF GROUND OCCUPATION IN AREA OF ORIENTAL AURES ALGERIA

Abdelhafid BOUZEKRI, Hassen BENMESSAOUD 180 (Art#242110-658) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

JOURNEYS, OTHERNESS, EXCHANGES

Michel FRANCK 190 (Art#242211-655) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Book review – MUREŞULUI DEFILE. A HUMAN GEOGRAPHY STUDY, Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-631-8, 158 pages, 46 figures, 20 tabels

by Martin OLARU 197 (Art#242212-652) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Book review – THE NORTHERN COMPONENT OF THE DEPRESSION ALIGNMENT FROM THEEASTERN CARPATHIANS CENTRAL GROUP (DRĂGOIASA-GLODU-BILBOR-SECU-BORSEC-CORBU-TULGHEŞ), Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-499-4, 510 pages, 110 figures, 44 tabels


AAnnaalleellee UUnniivveerrssiittăăţţiiii ddiinn OOrraaddeeaa,, SSeerriiaa GGeeooggrraaffiiee Year XXXXIIVV, no. 22//22001144 (December), pp. 8899--110000ISSN 11222211--11227733, E-ISSN 22006655--33440099 Article no. 224422110011--665511

http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm

GGEEOOMMOORRPPHHOOSSIITTEESS AASS AA VVAALLUUAABBLLEE RREESSOOUURRCCEE FFOORR TTOOUURRIISSMM DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT IINN AA DDEEPPRRIIVVEEDD AARREEAA.. TTHHEE CCAASSEE SSTTUUDDYY OOFF AANNIINNAA KKAARRSSTTIICC RREEGGIIOONN ((BBAANNAATT MMOOUUNNTTAAIINNSS,, RROOMMAANNIIAA))

LLaauurreennțțiiuu AARRTTUUGGYYAANN West University of Timișoara, Department of Geography, Bld. V. Pârvan, No. 4

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Geomorphosites are those landforms that in time, have acquired, a certain value, naming here scientific, cultural, aesthetic, ecological and/or economic. In many papers geomorphosites were associated with natural, relief-related tourist attractions. Those two notions, geomorphosite and natural tourist attraction are not synonymous, because a geomorphosite presents many features that give value to that landform. A geomorphosite is more than just topographic feature and that is the reason for which not all natural attractions are considered geomorphosite. Anina karstic region is synonymous with Anina Mining Area. This area was defined by Vasile Sencu (1977) as the area that is surrounded Anina town and it may be exploited by mining activities. The studied area presents many landforms specific for karst terrains. These features belong to the exokarst (sinkholes, poljies, karrens, gorges, karstic springs), but also to the endokarst (caves, shafts). The area is located in the largest and most compact area of carbonate rocks in Romania, in a typical structural area, Reșiţa-Moldova Nouă Synclinorium. Anina karstic region is an area with many socio-economical problems: poverty, unemployment and depopulation. Many landforms belonging to karst topography may be considered as geomorphosites due to their value (natural, economic, cultural). We believe that if some of these geomorphosites will be included in the touristic objectives, those landforms may generate a social-economic progress in this region, which nowadays is a deprived area. The aim of this paper is to point out that karstic geomorphosites in a deprived are may be a valuable resource. Key words: karst, geomorphosite, tourism, Anina, Romania

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Anina karstic region is synonymous with Anina Mining Area. This area was defined by

Vasile Sencu (1977) as the area that is surrounded Anina town and it may be exploited by mining activities. The studied area presents many landforms specific for karst terrains. These features belong to the exokarst (sinkholes, poljies, karrens, gorges, karstic springs), but also to the endokarst (caves, shafts) (Sencu, 1963, 1964).

The area is situated in Banat Mountains, in the centre of Anina Mountains, in the largest and most compact area of carbonate rocks in Romania, in a typical structural area, Reșiţa-Moldova Nouă Synclinorium (Orășeanu & Iurkiewicz, 2010). Corresponding Author

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Anina karstic region is an area with many socio-economical problems: poverty, unemployment and depopulation. Many landforms belonging to karst topography may be considered as geomorphosites due to their value (natural, economic, cultural). We believe that if some of these geomorphosites will be included in the touristic objectives, those landforms may generate a social-economic progress in this region, which nowadays is a deprived area. The aim of this paper is to point out that karstic geomorphosites in a deprived area may be a valuable resource.

This paper represents the first step in the study of geomorphosites of the Anina karstic region, the identification step (Gavrilă & Anghel, 2013) when we only mention the most representative landforms of the study area. The next steps, that will be presented in further works, has to come with an inventory stage (Gavrilă & Anghel, 2013) meaning that we have to obtain a database regarding geomorphosites. Besides, to implement a new type of tourism in the area, geoturism, the geomorphosites should receive a score based on an evaluation method, and finally, when these geomorphosites will receive an educational value, we will be able to come with a model approach to the interpretation of the scientific value of these karstic geomorphosites (Necheș, 2013).

There are many localities where natural resources may represent the main source of revitalization, but scientists have to bring to public attention this opportunity. One paper that points out the valuable natural resources is regarded Vașcău town, a town that is facing almost the same problems as Anina town, meaning here increasingly poor quality of urban life and youth emigration (Prașca, 2012).

Nowadays, the interest in geomorphological heritage or geomorphosites is increasing. There are certain concepts that are defining a geomorphosite, meaning that this feature must be a landform which we can attribute a certain value and must be a geomorphological resource which can be used by the society (Panizza, 2001). Comănescu & Nedelea (2010), quoting Panizza & Piacente (1993) mention that geomorphosites are represented by those landforms that in time, have acquired, a certain value, naming here scientific, cultural, aesthetic, ecological and/or economic.

Many of these values may be very subjective when we consider the importance of such a geomorphosite. The scientific, cultural and ecological values may be easier to evaluate due to the state of the art that it is in the literature. On the other hand, the aesthetic is a very subjective value, given only by the personal perception, by the individual consideration and feelings (Panizza, 2001). Also, the economic value is very subjective, because some economic factors may want to exploit a certain geomorphosite quick and get incomes rapidly, being in this under the risk of being destroyed, or the reverse, to get incomes for longer periods, but with the main aim of preserving that landform.

In the analysis of the geomorphosites there will always be the problem of subjectivity because the knowledge and the experience of the observer are defining the study regarding such geomorphological heritage (Panizza, 2001).

A tool that may be very useful for tourism in areas with many geomorphosites may be the geoturistic map, representing a cartographic tool that combines information of geological and geomorphologic nature, but also basic touristic information as belvedere points, information posters, etc. The aim of this new type of map is to help the tourist to understand better landforms that are belonging to the geomorphologic and geological heritage of a territory (Comănescu et al., 2013).

The geotouristics maps may have as potential customers people from different domains: tourists, young people, local residents, old people, scientists, etc. This type of maps are able to provide the landscape’s observers more information on the geological and geomorphological processes, including their spatial and temporal scale (Miccadei et al., 2014).

SITE GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY The Reșița - Moldova Nouă Zone is the classic area in Romania where the sedimentary

aspect is developed, even if sediments that covered a significant part of the field were largely removed by erosion. Reșița - Moldova Nouă worked as a depression in which succession and erosion of sedimentary cover were complete (Mutihac & Ionesi, 1974).

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In Anina karstic area we may find different types of limestone: Anina Valley’s limestone, Brădet limestone, Marila limestone, Gumpina limestone, Miniș limestone and also different types of marl. Should be mentioned the presence of clays, and also noncarbonated materials that are occupying smaller areas, such as granite, gravel and sandstones.

Lithologic and tectonic factors that influenced the development of landscape region are promoting or slowing the erosion action of exogenous agents, the most important are: the hardness of the rocks, their plasticity, their alternation, but also the character crease or the thickness of the various deposits and the depth to which they are (Mateescu, 1961).

From the structural point of view the study area is a folded region, with a Jurassian relief, being characterised by the presence of anticlines and synclines. The folds are Creases generally have a regular appearance, and are parallel to NNE-SSW orientation (Mateescu, 1961).

From the geomorphological point of view, the Anina karstic area presents a variety relief due to the high diversity of lithology, but also due to their structural aspect (figure 1) (Răileanu et al., 1964).

The entire area dominant geomorphological characteristic, which is conditioned by its geological structure, is represented by the existence of long parallel ridges, separated by valleys and karst plateaus (Bucur, 1997).

Figure 1. Main faults in the study area and their influence on the morphology

(Source: the faults were extracted from the geological map L-34-104-D-121d Anina 1:50000)

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Also, there are a series of limestone ridges and plateaus which are separated by deep valleys; they succeed from west to east in the direction of the geological structure, NNE-SSW. The development of large areas of karst landscape fragmentation has as consequences peaks and disorganized valleys. The sequence of karst plateaus separated by deep valleys, give to this karst region the representativeness of suspended karst plateaus, areas with a high degree of karstification (Onac, 2000). From the entire surface which means aproximately 172,4 km², carbonate rocks are occupying 144,3 km². On the other side, the non-carbonate rocks are occupying 28,1 km². In our study area there are present both exokarstic and endokarstic landforms. From the exokarstic point of view we may mention: karrens, karrens fields, sinkholes, sinkholes valleys, uvalas, poljes, blind valleys, dry valleys, gorges. Endokarstic landforms are represented by the presence of many caves and vertical shafts.

GEOMORPHOSITES AS A VALUABLE RESOURCE Geomorphosites may be analysed from at least two perspectives, naming here the scientific

perspective and the social approach. From the scientific approach, only „geomorphologists” may make considerations regarding such landforms and their values from the point of view of their evolution, their rarity in a certain landscape and their importance in the study area (Panizza, 2001). During last years, the creation of geoparks and the development of geotourism implies also geomorphosites as main features in these fields of tourism, and also the need to create new approaches regarding these geomorphological landforms, besides their geomorphological importantce (e.g. cultural, ecological) (Reynard et al., 2007). Geomorphological features are immediately recognizable and represent most attractive non-living natural elements of the landscape. These landforms aroused people by their memorable shapes and unusal aspect. By the value given by people these forms become heritage, or a value. This value is given by its attributes and allows the landform to be declared a geomorphological natural value (Erhartič & Zorn, 2012). From the other perspective, the social perspective may be addressed from many points of views as economic, cultural, and ecological. As „tourism specialists” we may also deal with this second perspective regarding our study area. There are opinions that consider more important in protecting and conserving the geomorphosites, than employing this geomorphological heritage in a touristic direction, this opinion being made regarding Bucegi Natural Park (Comănescu & Nedelea, 2010). One geomorphosite in Anina karstic area is Zânei Hill (in local speaking called Tâlva) where were found different plant fossils belonging to Jurassic period. This site may be included in a geopark, but for achieve these aim there should be found a method to evaluate the importance of this site. One example is the evaluation of two sites, one in Croatia - Papuk Mountain Geopark, and one in Serbia, Fruska Gora Mountain, that are proposed for geoparks using a method for evaluate the importance of these sites (Petrovic et al., 2013). But, we believe that, as „geomorphologists” and as „tourism specialists” may promote Anina karstic area as an important touristic area based most of the tourist potential on the geomorphological heritage. Anina karstic area is surrounding Anina town, which in the past was an important economic point in the area due to the mining activities. After the socialism collapsed, Anina started the regression, both economic and social. Since 2006, when the mining activities have been stopped, Anina area is considered as a deprived area because there are many unemployed people and also depopulation is an active process. Besides, the mining infrastructure may cause many ecological problems because there are no management plans regarding waste dumps and mining galleries. All these problems give us the motivation to bring the public attention that tourism may be the best solution for this area, and geomorphosites may represent the high points of interests in Anina region.

GEOMORPHOSITES IN THE STUDY AREA The most important geomorphosites in the area are represented by caves. In the study area

there are more than 600 caves, most of them having small extensions, but there are also some large caves which are important tourist attractions. We may mention here Buhui Cave, the largest and


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the most important of them, Plopa Cave, another important cave. Other large caves are The Cave with Water from Gârliște Gorges and The Vertical Shaft under Black Ridge. Then smaller caves are Cuptoare, Isvarnița, Blue Vertical Shaft, Cârneală, Ponor, Mărghitaș, and Cave of Caraș Spring, Anina Cave, and Girl’s Cave. Most of these caves are located in accessible sites, but most of them are not marked with touristic indicators or are not included in the touristic trails. The reasons for this situation are different. From the environmental protection, the NGOs and environmental agencies are trying to protect these vulnerable sites by not including them in the touristic resources. But, there are many unorganised touristic activities that imply visits in many of those sites, and, in this way there is neither a benefit. On the other hand, there are the local authorities that are trying to promote this karstic area as a touristic destination and they are including these geomorphosites in their promotional materials. And in this way there is a fight between keeping these features intact from the human influence and the aim to develop tourism in this area by using these speleological features as the main attraction of this region.

Buhui Cave (figure 2) The largest cave in the study area is situated in the central part of the Plateau Colonovăţ,

downstream of Lake Buhui. Access to the cave Buhui can be done through four entrances. They are listed from upstream to downstream, namely: Entry Certej entry through the pit entry through sinkholes and Buhui Grotto entrance. Is an active cave which drains the waters of the two springs, Buhui and Certej. To be mentioned that Buhui Cave has several levels, namely the asset, where the cave is crossed by the creek waters Buhui, the semi-active, which is active only at high water and the fossil (Sencu Basil Hall, Bears Hall) that was once active but now it is not crossed by any water course, being nice concretions.

Figure 2. Two of the entrances in Buhui Cave and pictures from the interior of the cave

Ponor Cave (figure 3) This cave is located in the South-West of the Ponor Plateau, close to the former Thermal

Power Crivina, upstream of the Plopa Cave. Gallery floor is covered with clay and limestone blocks detached from the ceiling. The ends of the gallery floor of the cave are covered with a crust of stalagmite origin that were formed many domes. The walls of the manifold and forms the ceiling of the concretion, which are disposed on the side. Terrace erosion found in the cave and in

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some places, like wall morphology shows that this was the course of a river, which subsequently found deeper flow paths through the cave that is in the vicinity Ponor Cave and at a lower level. Today, the cave is one type of fossil. As she began clogging the concretion, and the entry area, ceiling threatened to collapse (Sencu, 1964).

Figure 3. Pictures of Ponor Cave

(Source: Alina Satmari, 2005)

The Cave with Water from Gârliște Gorges (figure 4) The cave has a big opening, facing South, South-West, which leads to a large gallery and

up to 9 m high, lit up the first side (47 m) first gallery is oriented north, then East, and terminal side splits and both subgalerii become impenetrable by clogging with sand and gravel (Bleahu et al., 1976). Traces of water are visible everywhere in the cave erosion terraces, marmite with water and sharp blades on the floor, spoons, ditches, and vermiculaţii hieroglyphics on the walls, septa and domed ceiling and also as a result of water erosion, flint nodules and policies black or white. In some places the floor, ceiling and walls are well concretion.

Cârneală Cave (figure 5) It is a cave downward, with a grand entrance. The floor of the cave is covered with large

blocks of stone, and the ceiling shows small speleothems in the early stage of training. Towards the end of the cave ceiling is getting closer to the floor. In the first half of the gallery concretion formations do not occur. They begin to be seen in the final part of the cave, but are small and prevailing formations ceiling. Configurations are also downward in accordance with the development of the cave.

Cave from Caraș Spring (figure 6) It is a cave downward, with a large opening. During dry periods the entrance hall and the

next room are dry, but then the creek that flows through the cave galleries makes its presence felt. The cave is beautiful concretion, especially forms of wall and ceiling. The cave is located at the bottom of a valley, at the base of a steep wall on the front valley upstream of Caraș Spring; here come the name of the cave. Access to the cave is difficult due to the difference of level trail leads to Caraș Gorges and because of the stone blocks on the valley.


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Mărghitaș Cave (figure 7) It is located on the right side of the Buhui Valley, downstream Buhui Cave. It is carved

in limestone Barremian-Aptian age. The cave is formed downward from a gallery, with several flues, which has at the end a reservoir and has a length of 115 m. Gallery floor consists of living rock alternating with calcareous crust. Concretion forms appear on the ceiling and on the walls of the gallery.

Figure 4. The Cave with Water from Gârliște Gorges

Figure 5. The entrance in Cârneală Cave and aspects of the interior of this cave

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Figure 6. The entrance of the Cave from Caraș Spring and aspects from inside

Figure 7. The entrance of Mărghitaș Cave and speleothems inside the cave

Cuptoare Cave (figure 8) It is carved into the limestone of the upper Aptian age on diaclase tectonic and has a length

of 135 m cave is a former Cave Buhui upper gallery, and links between these two caves is blocked by a pit by the collapse of rocks, a pit which past made junction with Cave Buhui (Sencu, 1963).

Cuptoare Cave consists of a short corridor leading to two rooms that are succeeding with the floor covered by a calcareous crust. The walls and ceiling are various speleothems. In the last room concretions appear spectacular. Much of our cave speleothems are damaged, and that cave over there is a forestry road.


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The Vertical Shaft under Black Peak (figure 9) This vertical cavity is located in the northern part Anina Mountains, in Jitin basin, in a

small plateau about 1 km2 in the eastern slope of the valley suspended of Jitin, downstream Jitin Spring, being framed by Polom Peak and Black Peak.

Figure 8. Spelethemes in Cuptoare Cave

Figure 9. The entrance in The Vertical Shaft under Black Peak

Laurenţiu ARTUGYAN

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Other geomorphosites in this area is Bigăr Water Fall, Buhui Gorges (figure 10a), Gârliște Gorges (figure 10b), Miniș Gorges, Caraș Spring (figure 11a), Certej Spring (figure 11b), and a Zânei Hill Geopark. All these landforms and karstic features represent, besides speleological features, many points of interests that could be considered as geomorphosites.

But, there are also specific karstic landforms that may be considered as geomorphosites, and here we may mention large karren fields (figure 12a), large sinkholes (figure 12b) and sinkholes valleys. All these landforms, specific to a karstic region may be included in the touristic materials with the aim to promote this area by the importance of these geomorphosites.

Figure 10. Buhui Gorges (a) and Gârliște Gorges (b)

Figure 11. Caraș Spring (a) and Certej Spring (b)

Figure 12. Karren fields (a) and a large sinkhole (b)


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Tâlva Zânei geopark In the vecinity of Anina it is situated the highest peak, Tâlva Zânei (Hill) with an altitude of

935 meters. There in the past was a quarry, and there have been found plant fossils. But there is nothing arranged four touristic purposes, even if the site has large value from scientific point of view. These paleontological resources are very important because the collection of plant fossils present in Zânei Hill has a high diversity of species belonging to the Jurassic flora (Popa et al., 2009). There are different proposals and ideas that are trying to protect the geological and paleontological heritage of Zânei Hill. For researchers the heritage of this hill deserves to be protected and in their opinion this thing is possible only by creating an organized geopark, under a law. This potential geopark is seen as an opportunity to increase the environmental preservation, but also a chance to increase the economic potential of Anina town by obtaining incomes from touristic activities (Popa et al., 2010).

CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS This paper presents briefly a karstic area with many geomorphosites that could be exploited

in the tourism activities with the aim to reborn from economic and social perspectives a deprived area. We consider that geotourism or ecotourism may be the forms of exploitation of this area to have equilibrium between exploitation and preservation. Based on many field trips and many references regarding the study area, we consider that we are able to present certain proposals regarding the idea of exploiting geomorphosites in the Anina karstic area.

The first proposal would be to map and quantify the entire area and all these geomorphosites that are belonging to the karstic category.

Second, evaluate the impact of tourist activities which may affect these vulnerable geomorphological landforms and define a strategy for a rational exploitation of these areas.

The third proposal is to develop a number of educational and touristic trails that should be strictly respected by visitors.

The fourth proposal is to involve local communities in these tourist activities. Here we speak about guides and persons who should ensure the security for visitors.

And the last proposal is to adopt taxes that would be afforded by locals and also by those who are coming from different other regions.

To conclude this paper, we point out that tourism and the auxiliary economic activities may be the best option for the deprived Anina region, because, besides the geomorphosites in this area there are some other touristic attractions that may be included in touristic activities, as 2 artificial lakes (Buhui and Mărghitaș), some cultural heritage (the first mountain railway in Romania, Anina-Oravița), some buildings, the mining infrastructure (which need serious rehabilitation). All these elements may represent a plus brought to the geomorphosites as tourist attractions.

In the near future we intend to realise a work regarding these karstic geomorphosites from the quantitative perspective. Also, we intend to offer our scientific results to those organizations that are managing this area for a place in the management of this area.

Acknowledgments This work has been supported from the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391, Project

„Doctoral and Postdoctoral programs of excellence for highly qualified human resources training for research in the field of Life sciences, Environment and Earth Science”cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007–2013.

REFERENCES Bleahu M., Decu V., Negrea Şt., Pleșa C., Povară I., Viehmann I. (1976), Peșteri din România, Editura Ştiinţifică şi

Enciclopedică, București, 415 p.

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Bucur I.I., (1997), Formaţiunile mezozoice din zona Reşiţa-Moldova Nouă (Munţii Aninei şi estul Munţilor Locvei), Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 214 p.

Comănescu Laura, Nedelea A. (2010), Analysis of some representative geomorphosites in the Bucegi Mountains: between scientific evaluation and tourist perception. Area, 42.4, 406– 416, doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4762.2010.00937.

Comănescu Laura, Nedelea A., Dobre R. (2013), The geotouristic map – between theory and practical use. Case study the central sector of the Bucegi Mountains (Romania). GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, Year VI, no.1, vol.11, p. 16-22.

Erhartič B., Zorn M. (2012). Geodiversity and Geomorphosite Research in Slovenia. Geografski vestnik 84-1, 51-63. Gavrilă, Ionela Georgiana, Anghel, T. (2013), Geomorphosites inventory in the Măcin Mountains (South-Eastern

Romania), GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, Year VI, no. 1, vol. 11, p. 42-53. Mateescu F. (1961), Influențe structurale în relieful Munților Carașului, Probleme de geografie, Vol. VIII, Institutul de

Geologie și Geografie, București, 205-219. Miccadei, E., Sammarone, L., Piacentini, T., D'Amico, Daniela, Mancinelli, Vania, (2014), Geotourism in the Abruzzo,

Lazio and Molise National Park (Central Italy): The example of Mount Greco and Chiarano Valley. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites Year VII, no. 1, vol. 13, p.38-51.

Mutihac V., Ionesi L. (1974), Geologia României, Editura Tehnică, București, 646 p. Necheș Irina-Maria (2013), From geomorphosite evaluation to geotourism interpretation. Case study: the Sphinx of

Romania’s Southern Carpathians. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, Year VI, no. 2, vol. 12, pp. 145-162 Onac B. (2000), Geologia regiunilor carstice (Geology of Karst Terrains), Universitatea „Babes-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca,

Institutul de Speologie „Emil Racoviță” Cluj-Napoca, 399 p. Orășeanu I., Iurkiewicz A. (2010), Karst Hydrogeology of Romania, Editura Federația Română de Speologie, Oradea. Panizza M. (2001), Geomorphosites: Concepts, methods and examples of geomorphological survey. Chinese Science

Bulletin, Vol. 46. Petrovic M.D., Vasiljevic D.A., Vujicic M.D., Hose T.A., Markovic S.B., Lukic T. (2013), Global geopark and candidate -

comparative analysis of Papuk Mountain Geopark (Croatia) and Fruska Gora Mountain (Serbia) by using GAM Model. Carphatian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 8.

Popa M.E., Meller B. (2009), Review of Jurassic Plants from the Anina (Steierdorf) Coal Mining Area, South Carpathians, in the Collections of the Geological Survey of Austria. Jahrbuchder Geologischen Bundesanstalt, 149 (4), 487–498.

Popa M.E., Kedzior A., Fodolică V. (2010). The Anina Geopark: Preserving the Geological Heritage of the South Carpathians. Rev. Roum. Géologie, 53–54, 109–113.

Prașca Mariana (2012), Elements of the natural framework and the small town revitalization process. Vașcău (Bihor County). Analele Universității din Oradea - Seria Geografie, Year XXII, no. 2/2012 (December), pp. 241-248

Răileanu Gr., Năstăseanu S., Boldur C. (1964), Sedimentarul paleozoic și mezozoic al Domeniului getic din partea sud-vestică a Carpaților Meridionali, Anuarul Comitetului Geologic, XXXIV, Institutul Geologic, București, 5-58.

Reynard E., Fontana Georgia, Kozlik L., Scapozza C. (2007). A method for assessing «scientific» and «additional values» of geomorphosites. Geographica Helvetica Jg. 62 2007/Heft 3, 148-158.

Sencu V. (1963), Cercetǎri asupra carstului din jurul localităţii Anina (Banat) – Peşterile din bazinele pâraielor Anina şi Buhui, Probleme de Geografie, vol. X.

Sencu V. (1964), Cercetări asupra carstului din partea sudică a localității Anina (Banat). Peșterile din bazinele pâraielor Steierdorf și Ponor, Studii și cercetări de geologie, geofizică și geografie, t. 11, 140-162.

Sencu V. (1977), Carstul din câmpul minier Anina, St. Cerc. de Geologie, Geofizică, Geografie, Tom XXIV, 2, 199-212.

Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online April 10, 2014 June 10, 2014 July 15, 2014



UUSSEE OOFF LLAANNDDSSAATT TTMM FFOORR MMAAPPPPIINNGG LLAANNDD UUSSEE IINN TTHHEE EENNDDOORRHHEEIICC AARREEAA -- CCAASSEE OOFF GGAADDAAIINNEE PPLLAAIINN ((EEAASSTTEERRNN AALLGGEERRIIAA))

RRaabbaahh BBOOUUHHAATTAA Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire”

Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]

MMaahhddii KKAALLLLAA

Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire” Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]

HHaaddddaa DDRRIIDDDDII

Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire” Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Information on land use is essential in environmental projects and ecosystem management, these data allow to approach the reality of lands and understand the challenges of development. The emergence of geospatial technology has provided an easy way to detect the use of land. This article presents the results of mapping land use based on remote sensing data (Landsat TM) 2009 for the Gadaine plain region. The analysis of satellite image has identified six main types of land use (sebkha, chotts, bare soil, forest, agriculture, and cereal). The results allow the identification of each type of occupancy (spatial and area) across the plain where interventions are needed for better management of this endorheic space and also to limit the processes of land degradation. Key words: Gadaine, Landsat TM, land use, endorheic, remote sensing

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Land use is a major issue of global environmental change, so the mapping of land use is an

essential component for the development and the management of natural resources. Land cover reflects the biophysical state of the earth surface; soil types, vegetation and water (Turner et al.,1995). Major changes in the occupation of important soils have been reported during the last century due to the economic development and population growth (Mitch & Gosselink, 1993; Sarmah et al., 2011). The endorheic area of Ain Yagout plain located in the north of Batna and characterized by its closed and/or semi -closed topographical and morphological character is considered as a receiving and collecting space of all surrounded surface runoff coming simultaneously from many basins; such as Oued El Gourzi where all discharges from the city of Batna and its industrial area are draining to these spaces. Therefore, Gadaine constitutes a large area of Corresponding Author

Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALLA, Hadda DRIDDI

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an environmental degradation and pollution. Otherwise, arid and semi-arid climate regime characterizing this region directly contribute to the process of ecosystem degradation (Bouhata, 2008).

Nowadays, the rapid and continuous socialization of these endorheic areas through various activities and especially the current policy and the management actions; the potential for the expansion and development of Batna City oriented towards Batna-Constantine axis and Batna-Setif axis poses a serious problem because of the fragility of this area. Over time, it will lead to a very difficult situation to correct either the local or regional plan (Bouhata, 2008). It is essential to monitor and control both of land use and environment due to rapidly changing of land cover in this marginal area. Mapping of land use in this plain requires a synchronous study of surfaces and their uses. This study is based on a good knowledge of the existing land, that is why it is necessary to develop monitoring and management strategies of the environment and the agriculture, based on technological performance (Garouani et al., 1993; Benmessoud, 2011). The application of remote sensing has made it possible to study land use in less time, at lower cost and with a greater accuracy (Kachhwaha,1985). Currently the Landsat satellite imagery is an important source of information for observing the earth surface due to its digital repetitive nature and also availability. In this article, an attempt was made to map the land occupation using the satellite image processing Landsat TM for 2009.

PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY AREA The study area is part of the southern Constantine high plains of eastern Algeria, which

constitute a vast corridor mostly dominated by two mountains ranges: Aures massif to the south and Constantine mountains range to the north, a few kilometers north of Batna city. It is defined between the ranges of coordinates; Longitude: 6°12'15'' E and 6°29'50" E, Latitude: 35°55'51"N and 35°40'50" N. According to ANRH, it belongs to the watershed of Constantine high plains (07-03) (figure 1). Located at an altitude of 784 m to 1246 m, the study area is characterized by an impressive platitude whose slope rarely exceeds 5%.

The area is spread on a surface of 348 km² representing 46% of the total surface. This favors the presence of endorheism resulted in a multitude of Sebkhas and chotts that occupying the center of the plain (Bouhata 2008). In geologic term, the presence quaternary formations (sebkha soil, salted lemons...etc) and Triassic formations (colorful marls and gypsum breccias), significantly contribute to the salt character of these endorheic spaces. Generally, due to the semi-arid climate we can only find steppe and halophytic species that are resistant to soil salinity, mostly presented by a characteristic vegetation of large clumps Artiplex or Salsolaceae (Bouhata, 2008).

MATERIALS AND METHODS We use an image of the Thematic Mapper (TM) Landsat 5 with a ground resolution of

30mx30m, dated August 6, 2009. The choice of this period is used to identify different land use units. An image size of (970 x 900 pixel) was extracted from the previous raw image. To extract the exact study area, we used a set of four (04) topographic maps completely covering the whole area: Batna East 1/50000, Batna West 1/50000, Souk Naamane East 1/50000, and Souk Naamane West 1/50000. The data sets are projected in UTM WGS 84 with the zone number 31.

We opted for a colorful composition of 4, 3, 2 channels, which allowed us to cleanly identify the different themes of land compared to other colorful compositions.

Based on visual interpretations, good knowledge of the study area reality and from several missions on land (using a Garmin GPS-type (OREGON 550) for the identification of some plots on the images), we define six classes of land: 1. Sebkha; 2. Chotts; 3. Bare soils; 4. Forest; 5.Agriculture; 6.Cereals. A supervised classification based on the on the maximum likelihood method was used on this image, using the image processing software (ENVI 4.5). This method is considered as a powerful technique for classification, where the rule of the decision of that method is based on the probability of a pixel belonging to a given category (Fojstng, 1999) and (Khalid Omar, 2014).

Use of Landsat TM for Mapping Land Use in the Endorheic Area…

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Figure 1. Location of the study area

according to (l'Agence Nationale des Ressources Hydriques ANRH) distribution

Figure 2. Methodology flow diagram showing the processes of mapping land use


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The confusion matrix to validate the relevance and the quality of our classification illustrate this performance in (table 1); it clearly shows that the average performance of classification is 85.2% for the classification of the image.

Table 1. Confusion matrix for the classification of ETM 2009 image

Nomenclature sebkha chotts bare soils

Forest agriculture cereals Total pixel

Sebkha 7085 219 19 11 0 0 7334 Chotts 228 2059 145 64 1 179 2676 Bare soils 896 49 913 0 0 113 1971 Forest 81 67 0 796 3 0 947 Agriculture 0 7 0 0 341 0 348 Cereals 0 159 62 2 0 2118 2341 Total en pixels 8290 2560 1139 873 345 2410 15617

Precision Coefficient = 85.2404% Kappa Coefficient = 0.7633

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results of analysis for determining the occupancy percentages for each class are

presented in Table (table 2).

Table 2. Percentages and surfaces of land use units

Areas Types Of land use

06-08-2009

Sebkhas In % In km2 Chotts 46,96 163,42 Bare soils 17,14 59,64 Forest 14,99 52,16 Agriculture 6,06 21,08 Cereals 2,23 7,76 Total 12,62 43,91 100,00 348

The visual analysis of the thematic occupancy soil map resulting from the previous

classification (figure 3), has allowed us to analyze and spatialize different themes types of land. We note that the unproductive lands account for almost three quarters of the total study

area with a large surface area of sebkhas (46%) and shotts (17.14%) to the expense of agricultural land surfaces (20 % of total area). These results indicate the phenomenon of land degradation and the decline of agricultural activities in this region. This situation is the result of the interaction between climatic deterioration, the endorheic character and the impact of rapid socialization of these vulnerable areas.

At the Tinsilt sebkha; the degradation of development plannings realized during the colonial period or the conservation works of forests in the city of Souk Naamane in 1982 accelerate the progress of these sebkhas and shotts towards the neighboring farmlands, which definitely changes the type of farming grains to commercial crops that are resistant to soil salinity such as Tobacco.

In addition, the installation of Batna airport in the center of this area leading to the development of all kinds of road networks especially their poorly constructed character (figure 4), contribute to the presence and the creation of neo-sebkhas such as Felenta sebkha in the southeast of the study area. Even the current policy-oriented to the irrigated vegetables crops of high yield and profits, widely contribute to the deduction of cereals surfaces and the rising of bare soil percentages.


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Figure 3. Thematic map of land use in 2009

Figure 4. The stagnation of surface water on the edges of a poorly constructed roads

(Photo: R. Bouhata, May 2013)


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Clues on the field and the results obtained by processing the satellite image show the spread (figure 5) of both sebkhas and chotts areas; thus to a loss of agricultural land, which increases the vulnerability of these areas and the problems of ecosystem degradation and desertification in general.

Figure 5. Lateral spreading of Sebkhas and Chotts

(Photo: R. Bouhata, July 2013)

CONCLUSION Processing and analysis of a medium resolution Landsat TM image gives us suitable

results. However, compared to a region where the land is complex and interspersed like our study area. The average spatial resolution image (30m * 30m) shows some limitations. With this spatial resolution some classes have not been well discriminated, confusion is inevitable. The results allowed us to understand the spatial distribution of the land types. The study shows that the surfaces of sebkhas and chotts have extended catastrophically in the plain of Gadaine, which is an indicator of the rapid degradation of the ecosystem; that leads to an irreversible difficult to correct situation either on local or regional development scale, especially if the responsible managers do not take the necessary and immediate actions, that are mainly based on the understanding and the analysis of ecosystem deferent factors, using the new techniques of Geomatics.

For future studies, it is recommended to conduct a longitudinal study to highlight the change rate of different kinds of themes of land use. Moreover, the use of high-resolution images helps for detailed information (roads, small plots, isolated houses etc..).

REFERENCES Benmessaoud H., Kalla M., Driddi H. (2009), Évolution de l’occupation des sols et désertification dans le sud des Aurès

(Algérie). Mappemonde n° 94-2. Benmessaoud H. (2011), Use of images alsat1 for the implementation of maps land in semi-arid area - Case of the aurés region

(Algeria), Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea, pp. 16-22. Bensaid A., Smahib Z., Iftenect, Benzinehd S. (2003),Utilisation de la télédétection et dessig pour l'aide à la surveillance

du risque de dégradation des parcours steppiques,Télédétection, vol. 3, n° 5, p. 387–402. Bonn F., Rochon, G. (1992), Précis de télédétection Vol. 1 Principes et méthodes, AUPELF-UREF, Collection Presses

Universitairesdu Québec, Montréal. Bouhata R. (2008), Analyse de la dynamique des sebkhas et son impact sur la vulnérabilité au risque d’inondation dans

les dépressions endoréiques situées entre Zana et Madghassen à l’aide de l’imagerie satellitaire LANDSAT. Mémoire de magister - université Hadj Lakhdar Batna, p .160.

Fojstng E. (1999), Contribution de la Morphologie mathématique à la cartographie de l’occupation du sol a partir d’image SPOT (Région de l’extrême Nord-Cameroum), Rapport de doctoral en télédétection, Réseau télédétection, AUPELF - UREF, p. 91.


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Garouani A. et. al., (1993), Cartographie de l’occupation du sol et des zones humides par télédétection dans la basse vallée de la Medjerda (Tunisie), Cinquième journées scientifiques du réseau de la télédétection d’AUPELF - UREF, Tunisie, 21-24 Septembre 1993, p.163-170.

Girard M.C., Girard C.M. (1999), Traitement des données de télédétection, Dunod, 530 p. Kachhwala T.S. (1985), Temporal monitoring of forest land for change detection and forest cover mapping through

satellite remote sensing, Proceedings of the 6th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing, Hyderabad, pp 77–83. Kalla M., Dridi H., Benmessaoud H., Bouhata R. (2007), Analyse de la vulnérabilité des zones endoréique à l’aide des

outils de la géomatique .cas de la zone aéroportuaire de Batna-Est (Algérie), Actes du colloque Geotuis 2007, Tunis, 18-17 novembre 2007.

Khalid Omar Murtaza, Shakil A. Romshoo (2014), Determining the Suitability and Accuracy of Various Statistical Algorithms for Satellite Data Classification, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, Volume 4, No 4, pp 585-599.

Mitch Gosselink (1993), Landscape ecological planning through a multi-scale characterization of pattern: studies in Western Ghats, South India, Environment monitoring Assessment, pp 215-233.

Sarmah P.K., Mipun B.S., Basumatary A.K., Talukdar B.K., Prasad S. (2011), Land cover change dynamics and future implication analysis in Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park of Assam, using multi-temporal satellite data, Geospatial World Forum, Hyderabad, India, pp 18-21.

Turner T.J, George I.M., Snowden S.L, Yusaf R and Hasinger G. (1995), Calibration corrections applied to individual PSPC events”, MPE/OGIP Calibration memo CAL/ROS/95-010, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771.

Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online April 27, 2014 July 03, 2014 August 07, 2014



TTHHEE BBIIOOCCLLIIMMAATTEE AANNDD TTRREENNDD OOFF GGRROOWWIINNGG SSEEAASSOONN IINN TTHHEE EEAASSTTEERRNN DDAANNUUBBEE DDEELLTTAA AARREEAA OOVVEERR 11995511--22000000 PPEERRIIOODD

DDaanniieellaa SSTTRRAATT Universitatea din Bucuresti, Facultatea de Geografie, Bd. N Bălcescu nr. 1,


Abstract: Results of research work concerning the assesse of climate, bioclimate type and growing season length of eastern Danube Delta area are reported. Data from Sulina meteorological station during the period 1961-1990 were analyzed and processed on a monthly basis for computing climate and bioclimate indices, and climate diagrams were constructed in order to evaluate eastern Danube Delta area. This area has a semiarid climate and according to Rivas-Martinez Bioclimatic Classification System has a Mediterranean pluviseasonal continental bioclimate subtype. The thermal growing season length was determined based on 5° C threshold for the second half of 20th century. The mean length of growing season was 254 days, with start day on 20 March and average date of ending on 28 November. Key words: bioclimate, oceanity, semiarid, Bioclimatic Classification System

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Climate exerts strong influences on geographical distribution of plants through specific

physiological thresholds of temperatures and water availability (Andreau et al., 2007). Bioclimates are syntheses of climatic variables that facilitate comparative analyzes of biotic responses to climate conditions. In the context of plants and vegetation researches, bioclimatology is the discipline that deals with the interactions between climate and the distribution of plants and plant communities on Earth (Rivas-Martinez et al., 1999).

In the last three decades for bioclimatic classification of a study area is used a bioclimatic classification system established by Rivas-Martínez et al. (1999), and Rivas-Martínez (2005). It is known as Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System (WBCS) and it is based on a set of bioclimatic indexes and climatic parameters, showing a close relationship between numerical thresholds values and plant formations (Mesquita & Sousa, 2009).

The second half of XXth century was characterized by a global warming due to the increase greenhouse gasses concentration, especially CO2, which has the strongest radiative forcing (IPCC, 2001). The global warming changes climates and affects biological phenomena. One such phenomenon is the growing season length (GSL), which implies modifications of phenological phases of plants species and increasing of photosynthetic activity. From phonological point of

Corresponding Author

The Bioclimate and Trend of Growing Season…

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view, GSL is defined as the period between bud burst and leaf fall (Linderholm, 2005). From the climatological perspective, GLS is regarded as the entire period in which growth can theoretically take place, and should be distinguished from growing period which is the period of actual growth (Carter, 1998). To define thermal GLS, the most used criteria are freeze criteria and temperatures averaged over a number of days (Bootsma, 1994; Jones & Briffa 1995; Carter, 1998; Jones et al., 2002; Frisch et al., 2002). According to Robeson (2002), GSL is the period between the date of the last spring freeze and the first autumn freeze, where the frost may be determined by thresholds of daily minimum temperatures. For mid and high latitudes, the 5 °C mean temperature threshold is widely accepted for determining the thermal growing season because 5 °C is generally recognized as the lowest temperature threshold for plant vegetation. Thus, Frisch et al. (2002), defines the GSL as the period between when daily temperatures are > 5 °C for 5 days and when daily temperatures are < 5 °C for 5 days. Variations of GSL are an indicator of climate changes. For the North Hemisphere, over second half of XXth century, many studies showed that the last spring frost had become earlier and the first frost dates had become later, resulting in an increase in the frost free period of a 10 days, at least (Linderholm, 2005; Walther & Linderholm 2005). Also, a lengthening of the growing season (designed by 5 °C) of 5.5 days to 24.5 days over 1951-2000 periods was founded in Germany (Metzel et al. 2003), Austria, Switzerland, and Estonia (Linderholm et al., 2005). According to Chmielewski and Rötzer (2002), the high positive North Atlantic Oscilation (NAO) in the late 20th century led to a nearly Europe-wide warming in the early spring (February-April) over the last 30 years (1969-1998) from the 20th century and this warming led to an earlier beginning of growing season by 8 days. Thus, since 1960s, the onset of spring has been advancing in the northern hemisphere on average by 2.5-2.8 days every decade (Nagy et al., 2013). The changes and variations of the growing season length have important implications for the competition and fitness of plants, which implies profound ecological consequences (Walther et al., 2002) such as extension of species range boundaries by establishment of new local populations causing extinction of former populations (Karlsson et al., 2007). Since November 1999, GLS is one of 10 suggested indicators for monitoring change in climate extremes world-wide that have recommended by World Meteorological Organization Commission for Climatology / Climate Variability Working Group on Climate Change Detection (Frich et al., 2002). The present work focuses on various climatic and bioclimatic indices that determine the bioclimatic conditions of the eastern part of Danube Delta (DD) area over second half of 20th century. An analysis regarding changing in GSL is presented for same study period time.

DATA AND METHODOLOGY Study area From geomorphological point of view, the eastern part of DD represents the marine delta

plain. The relief is composed of more or less parallel, narrow sand ridges and inter-barrier depressions. Reed marshes and shallow lakes are present, too. The high sand barriers are about 1-2 m higher than the inter-barrier depressions that have saline slack marshes and swamp areas (Vespremeanu, 2004). The sandy beach is the best preserved stretch of sandy coastline in Romania and it has considerable scenic value. Also, it is habitat for rare psammophilous and halophilous plant species, some of them being endemic western Black Sea Coast (Strat, 2007, 2009; Sârbu, 2007).

On the high sandy barriers and stabilized dunes, with very dry soils, there is steppe-like vegetation whereas in inter-barrier depression is colonized by halophilous and hidrophilous vegetation. Therefore, in some local areas, special characteristics of the substrate (soil, groundwater table) have a stronger effect than the climate, which lead to azonal vegetation.

Climate data and indices The purpose of this work is to investigate possible changes of the GSL on eastern part of

DD for the 1951-2000 period. In addition, a bioclimatic characterization is made based on climate

Daniela STRAT

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data for the Standard Climate Normals 1961-1990. For this purpose we considered monthly and annual mean values of air temperature and the amount of rainfall recorded at Sulina climatological station which is located in eastern extremity of Danube Delta. Climate data are available at http://www.tutiempo.net/en/Climate/SULINA/153600.htm and http://www.weather.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/europe/ukr_lith/sulina_e.htm.

The fallowing climate indices were evaluated: Johansson Continentality Index, Rail Lang Factor, Kerner Oceanity Index, Martonne Aridity Index, UNESCO Aridity Index, Ellenberg Quotient, Kira’s Warmth Index, Kira’s coldness Index, and Holdridge Annual Biotemperature. For bioclimatic diagnosis according to Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System (WBCS) (Rivas-Martinez et al., 1999; Rivas-Martinez, 2005), the indedices that were computed are showed in table 1. There are a number of definitions for growing season of vegetation (Linderholm, 2006). In this study it is applied the definition suggested by Frisch et al. (2002), that the start and the end of the growing season are defined as when the daily mean air temperatures are above or below 5 °C during 5 consecutive days, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUTION Climate and bioclimate characteristics Air temperature is the main meteorological parameter that determines the climatic character

of a particular area. In eastern part of DD, the mean annual temperature for analyzed period (1961-1990) is 11.4 °C. The hottest month is July (22 °C) and the coldest month is January (0.2 °C).

Warmer winter and spring temperatures have been noted over the last half of XXth century. Therefore the January average value has turned positive. It increased from (-0.5 °C) for the 1901-1951 period to (+ 0.5 °C for the 1951-2000 period.

The annual temperature range is only 21.8 °C which means that all year long the sea breeze affects the climate of the region. Based on JCI value (23.1), the climate in characterized as marine. In counterpart, the oceanity of climate was assessed. The value of KOI (15.6), being higher than 10, suggests that, from thermal point of view, the climate of the study area can be characterized as marine, which reveals the influence of the Black Sea air masses.

The comparison of the average values of annual rainfall sums for the period of 1896-1970 (Bogdan et al., 1983) with the 1961-1990 period show lower volume of rainfall in second period with about 65 mm. Also, analysis of precipitation over the years 1951-2000 (Dragota & Baciu, 2008) shows lower amount (268.5 mm) than in normal period 1961-1990 (281 mm).

Monthly climate characteristics are shown by means of Péquy climograph (figure 1). In this respect, the study area is characterized by arid climate seven month per year (from May to October), whilst three months have a temperate climate (November, December and March) and two months (January and February) have an cold climate, when mean air temperature is close to zero but not negative. Analysis of Gaussen- Bagnous ombrothermic diagram (figure 2) reveals that reported to the moisture regime all months of the warm season are dry (P<2T) and the cold season is wet, March and October being the driest months. Monthly values of De Martonne Aridity Index, February-June and August-September intervals are semiarid, and July and October are arid months. The annual variation characteristics of rainfall which was analyzed with Angot pluviometric index reveals there is no high annual amplitude, rainy months belong to warm season and the highes value of thie index is for September (1.41).

Quantitatively, on the eastern part of DD area, precipitations are distributed almost equally in the two seasons, 143 mm in warm season and 138 mm in cold season, respectively. Annualy, potential evapotranspiration is 2.6 times higher than rainfall amount. The aridity indices allow a bioclimatic classification of the study area. According to IPCC (2007), the annual rainfall can be used solely as the simplest aridity index. Due to rainfall annual amount at Sulina is only 281 mm, based on IPCC criteria, the region is semiarid. Also, according to the calculated values for Aridity De Martonne Index (13.3) and Box Aridity Index (0.38), the study area is semiarid, too, although taking in account the Lang Climate Factor value (24.6), the climate type of this region is arid.


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Table 1. Bioclinatic indices 1 calculated for Sulina climatological station over 1951-2000 period

Name of index Formula Value for Sulina

station (1961-1990)

Johansson Continentality Index (Baltas, 2007) JCI=[(1.7A/(sinL)]-20.4 23.1 Kerner Oceanity Index (Baltas, 2007) KOI=100(To-Ta)/E 15.6

Box Moisture Index (UNESCO Aridity Index) AI=P/PET 0.38 Lang Rain Factor (Devi, 1992) LRF=P/T 24.6

Annual De Martonne Aridity Index (Maliva & Missimer, 2012)

DM I= P/(T+10) 13.3

Monthly de Martonne Aridity Index (Baltas, 2007) MDMI = 12Pi/Ti+10 -

Pinna Combinative Index (Baltas 2007)

PCI = 1/2{[P/(T+10)] + [12Pd/(Td+10)]}

10.7

Continentality Index Ic = Tmax-Tmin 21.8 Ombrothermic Index (Rivas-Martinez, 1996) Io=(Pp/Tp)10 2.05

Ombrothermic index of the summer Quarter (Rivas-Martinez, 1996)

Iosq= P6-8/T6-8)/10 0.13

Thermicity Index (Rivas-Martinez, 1996)

It = (T + m + M) 10 1.21

Compensated thermal index (Rivas-Martínez et al., 1999)

CIT = It + C, where It is thermal index and C is the compensation

value. 167.3

Kira’s Warmth Index (Federici & Pignoti, 1991) KWI =∑(T-5), For months in which

T>5°C 90.6

Holdrige’s Annual Biotemperature (Lugo et al. 1999)

ABT=∑T/12 ; 0°<T<30° 11.4

Angot’s pluviometric index (k) (Dragota et Baciu, 2008)

K = (365xq)/(Qxn); k < 1, dry months; k>1, rainy months.

-

Figure 1. Péquy climograph for Sulina climatological station

(Latitude: 45.16; Longitude: 29.66; Altitude: 9 m a.s.l.) over 1951-2000 period

1 Tmax: mean temperature of the hottest month [°C]; Tmin: mean temperature of the coldest month [°C]; P: annual precipitation [mm]; T: mean annual temperature [°C]; Pi: precipitation sum of the given month [mm]; Ti: mean temperature of the given month [°C]; Pd: precipitation of the driest month [mm]; Td: mean temperature of the driest month [°C]; PET: annual accumulated potential evapotranspiration calculated by the Thornthwaite equation [mm]; A: mean annual air temperature amplitude [°C]; L: latitude of the site [absolute value]; Pp: yearly positive precipitation [mm] (total average precipitation of those months whose average temperature is higher than 0°C); Tp: yearly positive temperature [°C] (sum of the monthly average temperature of those months whose average temperature is higher than 0°C); m: average minimum temperature of the coldest month of the year [°C]; M: average maximum temperature of the coldest month of the year [°C]; To and Ta are the monthly temperature of October and April months [°C]; Td and Pd are precipitation and temperature means in the driest month; Q: annual rainfall amount (mm); q: daily volume of precipitation in a month; n: number of days in a particular month.

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Based on values of bioclimatic indices (table 1), which were computed using Rivas-Martinez methodology (Rivas-Martinez et al., 1999), the eastern DD area fit within the Mediterranean – eutemperate macrobioclimate, and it has a Mediterranean pluviseasonal continental bioclimate subtype. The termotype is Supramediterranean and the ombrotype is dry.

Figure 2. Gaussen-Bagnouls ombrothermic diagram for Sulina climatological station over 1951-2000 period

Growing Season Length In the last half of 20th century, the mean thermal GSL in eastern DD area was 254 days. The

average date of starting growing season was 20 March and the average date of ending growing season was on 28 November. The earliest start (figure 3) was in 1995 when it began on 17 February and GSL was 263 days, and in 1966 when it began on 18 February and GLS was 292 days. The latest start of Growing season was in 1963, on 12 April. In that year, the GSL was 240 days. With each decade, the start of growing season has became earlier (figure 4), from 25 March in 1951-1960 decade to 13 March in 1991-2000 decade.

The earliest end of growing season was in 1988, on 10 November (figure 4). In that year the GSL was only 229 days, the shortest growing season in whole period. The latest end of growing season for same period was in 1960, on 25 December, when the GSL was 282 days.

Figure 3. Start day of thermal growing season for eastern Danube Delta area from 1951 to 2000


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y = -0.11x + 338.1

R2 = 0.019

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Figure 4. End day dates of growing season (days from 1 January)

in the eastern Danube Delta area from 1951 to 2000

Figure 5. The length of growing seasons in the second half of 20th century in the eastern Danube Delta area

The largest growing season in the 1951-2000 intervals was 292 days in 1966 and 1995.

Thus, the amplitude was 63 days and the GLS over 1951-2000 ranged by an average of 14.4 days from de mean of 254 days. The slight lengthening of growing season is mainly coused by the advancing of date of the beginning of growing season (figure 3).

Regarding the end of growing season, there was a sligt earlier ending of growing season. Therefore, for whole period, the lengthening of growing season based on an earlier start was attenuated by an earlier ending.

Decennial analysis shows tendencies for an earlier growing season start (figure 7). The start of growing season was earlier with 8 days in 1991-2000 decade related to the average of 1951-1960 period. Also, in 1991-2000 decade, the start of growing season was earlier with 12 days than 1951-1960 decade. Because of that, GSL for 1991-2000 decade was the longest from all decades, 262 days repectivelly.

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-40

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Figure 6. Observed changes in thermal growing season length in the eastern Danube Delta area in the second

half of 20th century compared with a 1951-2000 average (254 days). For each year, the line represents the number of days shorter or longer than long term average.

Figure 7. The mean date of growing season start

for each decade of 1951-2000 period at Sulina climatological station

Figure 8. The mean date of growing season end for each decade of 1951-2000 period at

Sulina climatological station

Regarding the end of growing season, a general tendency was for an earlier end o. f growing season. The later end of growing season was in 1911-1970 decade, when the average date was 3 December, which is different from general tendency of 1951-2000 period (figure 4, 8).

The shortest growing season (248 days) was in 1951-1960 decade and the longest growing season was in the last decade of 20th century (262 day). After applying Mann-Kendall test (Hamed, 2008), the value of τ/σ ratio (1.63) is within the limits of ± 1.96 and hence there is no evidence of increasing or decreasing trend in data series. Positive deviations of GSL from average 1951-2000 were less than negative deviations (figure 6), and they were clustered in 1971-1980 decade and in last decade of 20th century. The growth rate of GSL was 1.2 days per decade.


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CONCLUSION The values of aridity indices show that eastern DD area is semiarid and it has a

Mediterranean pluviseasonal continental bioclimate subtype, according to Rivas- Martinez Bioclimatic Classification System. From thermal point of view it is characterized as marine, with a growing season length around 254 days that starts on 20 March and ends on 28 November. Over 1951-2000 period, GSL has become 4 days longer but the trend has been moderate. The inter-annual and decadal variability was more pronounced. However, the longest growing season was in 1991-2000 decade, with a mean value by 262 days.

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Linderholm H. W. (2005), Growing season changes in the last century - a review. In: Hans W. Linderholm, Alexander Walther, Deliang Chen (eds.), Growing season trends in the Greater Baltic Area, C69 Rapport, Göteborg 2005. http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/projects/emulate/D14/WP4_Goteborg_D14_GSL.pdf, accesed on 5 April 2014.

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phenology of two common temperate shrubs, International Journal of Biometeorology, 57(4): 579-588. doi:10.1007/s00484-012-0585-z.

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geomorfologie, 7: 51-60, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti Vespremeanu E. (2004), Morfologia reliefului Deltei Dunării în ultimii 40 ani. Sudii şi cercetări de oceanografie costieră,

Vol. I, pp. 31-60, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. Walther G.R., Post E., Cornvey P., Manzel A., Parmesan C., Beebee T.J.C., Fromentin J-M., Hoegh-Guldberg O., Bairlein

F. (2002), Ecological responses to recent climate change, Nature, 416, March, 389-395. Walther A., Linderholm H. W. (2005), A comparison of growing season indices for the Greater Baltic Area. In Hans W.

Linderholm, Alexander Walther Deliang Chen (eds.), Growing season trends in the Greater Baltic Area, C69 Rapport, Göteborg 2005. http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/projects/emulate/D14/WP4_Goteborg_D14_GSL.pdf

Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online July 03, 2014 August 07, 2014 September 02, 2014



RREECCEENNTT TTRREENNDD IINN WWIILLDD LLIIFFEE IINN TTHHEE BBRRAAHHAAMMPPUUTTRRAA VVAALLLLEEYY OOFF AASSSSAAMM

TToonnggddii JJAAMMIIRR Department of Environmental Studies, D.I.E.T, Mokokchung, Nagaland, India,

email: [email protected]

KKaakkhheettoo SSUUMMII

St John Higher Secondary Residential School and College, Dimapur -797112, Nagaland, India, email: [email protected]

AAkkaammbboo YYEEPPTTHHOO

St John Higher Secondary Residential School and College, Dimapur -797112, Nagaland, India, Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Assam is situated in a rich bio diverse region of India. But now,with the growth of human population natural landscape has been changed. There are reports of poaching, encroachment, logging and various developmental projects etc. With this in mind, the Brahmaputra valley of Assam was selected to assess the wild life status annually during the period ranging from 1981-2011. The study reveals significant decrease in Rhinocer ospoaching; this can be attributed to adequate staffing, patrolling, intelligence gathering and control over the use of firearms. It is also observed that natural death for elephants show decreasing trend significantly. The studies also conclude that attacks by wild elephant son human shows significant increasing/decreasing trend at Sonitpurand Goalpara district respectively. The attacks on human can be attributed to the clearance of forests for settlement/agriculture.The data were subjected to correlation analysis which indicates positive relationships exist between Rhino and Swamp deer with that of forest cover unlike elephant. In a nutshell, the increase in Rhino, elephant, Tiger and Swamp deer during the study period can be attributed to the increase in allocation and expenditure to train the staff for protecting the animals. Key words: trend, increase, decrease, correlation, analysis, significant

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Assam is situated between 24° 09' - 27° 58' N and 89° 42' - 96° 01' E and has a

geographical area of 7.84 million ha. Topographically, the state can be divided into three parts - the Brahamputra valley, the Barak valley and the Assam mountain range. Assam is dominated by the Brahmaputra River and its drainage area isroughly 935,500 sq. km. The climatic condition and


Tongdi JAMIR, Kakheto SUMI, Akambo YEPTHO

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wide variety in physical features have resulted in a diversity of ecological habitats such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, which harbour and sustain wide ranging floral and faunal species. The State of Assam is one of the two biodiversity „Hot Spots” in the country. Assam is part of the transitional zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese Biographical regions. With existence of one of the most diverse faunal population; Assam provides the gateway for spread of both oriental and Palaearctic fauna to other parts of the country. Assam’s mammalian diversity is represented by 193 species which are widely distributed in this region. As per the Forest Survey of India report (2011), the total recorded forest area is 26, 832 sq. km which constitutes 33% of the total geographical area of the State. The dense forests constitute 1.84%, open forest 18. 90% and non-forest 64.49%. There are five national parks (2.51% of State’s geographical area) and 18 wildlife sanctuaries (1.88% of State’s geographical area) in the State. The total protected area is 3, 43,996 ha which constitutes 4.39% of the total geographical area of the State. Manas Tiger Reserve is a Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage site and Kaziranga National Park is also a World Heritage site in Assam.

Figure 1. Study Area

Numerous studies on wildlife by different researchers were undertaken in India. Initial Management Effectiveness Evaluation Report (2003) stated that stresses and threats in Kaziranga National Park (Assam) are poaching, high flood, loss & degradation of habitat (Erosion/weeds), illegal fishing, heavy traffic and breach in embankments. Fernando et al., 2005; Talukdar & Barman, 2003 conclude that growth of human population have changed the landscape leading to

Recent Trend in Wild Life in the Brahmaputra Valley os Assam

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conflict with elephant. World Bank, 1999; World Wide Fund for Nature, 2004 reported that most severe threats to Protected Areas are poaching, encroachment, agriculture, ranching, urban development and logging. Conflicts in northeastern states are unique because of aggression by the local people and retaliatory persecution of snow leopard (Mishra et al., 2004) and dholes on account of livestock depredation (Aiyaduraiet al., 2004). On the threat to protected areain southern India Barve et al.,2005 used G.I.S, physical and socio-economic attributes which are strongly correlated with the human activities.The increase in wild meat consumption by indigenous communities in Northeast India correlates with the increase in income (Hilaluddin, 2005). Pokhrel & Thapa, 2008 investigate on habitat preferences of wild ungulates which are high in Sal forest for blue bull (64.51%) and grassland for swamp deer (92.18%). The primary threats to the snow leopard are poaching and killing by villagers (Satterfield, 2009) and large scale killing for making shahtoosh shawls (Shawl & Takpa, 2009). According to Maheshwari et al., 2010 the diet of snow leopard in Ladak his Blue sheep. Das et al., 2012 reported that Human elephant conflict is due to the population growth and conversion of natural habitat to human dominated landscapes. It is observed that there is an increase in golden Langur from 1,500 (1997) to 5,600 (2007-2012) in Assam and Bhutan (Horwich et al., 2013). Kumar & Subudhi, 2013 investigate on the occurrence of the wild animal species after relocation of people from Rajaji National Park which indicate that wild animals use the grasslands for feeding after the removal of anthropogenic pressure. A recent study reveals that harvesting of wild animals in Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradeshis mainly for subsistence purpose Selvan et al., 2013.

In the light of the above discussions, the state of Assam was selected to assess the wild life status. Many researchers in India have investigated wild life on different levels-characteristics, spatial and temporal scale. Therefore, there is an urgent need to quantify the intensity of wild life species and assess its trend.

DATA AND METHODS Annual wild life data during the period ranging from 1981-2006 were used for this study.

The annual data was obtained from the Department of Environment & Forests Government of Assam. To determine the significance of trend, linear regression and

correlation coefficient were used and the time series graphs were plotted for the entire period. The trends are tested at 0.05% and 0.01% significant level.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trend in causes of death among the wild life The above table reveals that among the causes for Rhinoceros deat hare Infighting and

predation which show increasing trend but not significant. The data for poisoning and retaliatory killing are insufficient so it was not analysed. On the other hand, Natural death, poaching, accident and unknown shows decreasing trend but significant for poaching. The decrease is more for natural death (3.4) and poaching (3.3). It is observed that the animals caused by diseases are few.

Government of Assam initiated measures against poaching and slowly the rhino population increased in the state. For controlling poaching, authorities constructed new anti poaching camps, adequate staffing, providing mobility, patrolling, intelligence gathering and control over the use of fire arms around the park. Erecting physical barriers, mobile patrolling during the flood and cropping seasons as well as the health/nutritional requirements of the animals are conducted by the authorities. Further, regular immunization of the cattle living in the fringe villages prevents the spread of diseases among wild animals.With effective protection methods the number of poaching cases has declined. Thus, this has lead to the decrease in number of animals being killed.

As for Elephant, Accident, Diseases, Infighting (the three words are not with capital letters) and predation shows increasing trend. The increase varies from 0.2 to 1.3 per year. On the other hand, natural, poaching, poisoning and unknown show decreasing trend but significant for natural. The decrease varies from 0.1 to 0.4 per year. There is insufficient data for Retaliatory killing so the


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data were not processed. The death of elephant population in Assam shows an increasing trend as a result of vehicles plying in the National highway No. 37 and also by having close contact with the domestic animals transmitting diseases. The decrease in natural, poaching, poisoning and unknown was due to anti-poaching camps, proper patrolling and management by the authorities.

Table1.Causes of death among the wild life Note: ID-insufficient data; * Indicate 0.05%, ** 0.01% Significant level

Animals Causes of death Slope value R² Rhinoceros Natural y = -3.4x + 55.8 0.127

Poaching y = -3.3x + 23.5 0.856* Poisoning NA Retaliatory killing NA Accident y = -1.8x + 11.8 0.587 Diseases ID Infighting, predation y = 0.1x + 22.3 0.000 Unknown y = -0.2x + 2.8 0.031 Total y = -9.6x + 119.4 0.426

Elephant Natural y = x - 0.4 0.657* Poaching y = -0.1x + 1.7 0.019 Poisoning y = -0.4x + 2.8 Retaliatory killing NA Accident y = 0.2x + 18.2 0.005 Diseases y = 1.3x + 8.7 0.330 Infighting, predation y = 0.5x + 0.5 0.178 Unknown y = -0.1x + 15.3 0.001 Total y = 2.4x + 46.8 0.252

Tiger Natural y = -0.3x + 1.7 0.132 Poaching ID Poisoning ID Retaliatory killing ID Accident ID Diseases NA Infighting, predation y = -0.2x + 2.4 0.021 Unknown Less Total y = -0.2x + 5.2 0.015

The analysis also reveals that for Tiger; Natural, infighting and predation shows decreasing

trend. The decrease ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 per year. However, poaching, poisoning, Retaliatory killing and accident data were very few. The data related to death due to disease and unknown were insufficient so it was omitted.

Trend in death of human by wild elephants Keeping these at the background, an attempt is made to understand the death of human by

wild elephants in all the districts of Brahmaputra valley. The results are presented in Table 2. The above table indicate that number of human being killed by wild elephants at Sonitpur,

Sibsagar, Nagaon, Jorhat, Lakhimpur, Tinsukia, Kamrup, Dhemaji and Udalguri shows increasing trend. It varies from 0.1 to 3.6 human being per year but significant for Sonitpur. The increase in human being killed by wild elephants at Sonitpur district can be attributed to the decrease in forest coverfrom 19 percent in 2001 to 18 percent in 2011.This is due to the wild elephant competing with humans for space and food as a result of clearance of forest. Thus, this has lead to the


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increase in death. On the other hand Golaghat, NC Hills, Dibrugarh, Goalpara and Baksa show decreasing trend but significant for Goalpara. The slope varies from 0.4 to 1.6 per year. In the case of Goalpara, there is an increase in forest cover from 17 percent to 18 percent in 2011. Hence,there is a decrease the number of people being killed.The data for Bongaigaon, Kokrajhar, Darrang, Dhubri, Barpeta and Golaghat are scanty and statistical analysis could not perform.

Table 2.District-wise Record of Killing of Human Beings by Wild Elephant 2007-2011

Note: ID-insufficient data; * Indicate 0.05%, ** 0.01% Significant level

District Slope value R²

Sonitpur y = 3.6x - 0.2 0.944**

Sibsagar y = 0.114x + 1.685 0.028

Nagaon y = 0.8x + 4 0.130

Jorhat y = 0.6x + 1.2 0.2

Lakhimpur y = 0.9x - 0.3 0.613 Bongaigaon NA

Tinsukia y = 1.1x - 0.5 0.643

Kamrup y = 0.2x + 0.4 0.2

Dhemaji y = 0.6x - 0.8 0.45

Udalguri y = 2.3x - 2.1 0.595

Goalpara y = -1.6x + 9.4 0.727**

Baksa y = -0.9x + 5.3 0.152

Golaghat y = -0.4x + 5.8 0.031

Dibrugarh y = -0.5x + 2.5 0.625

Dhubri ID

Udalguri ID

Barpeta ID

Golaghat ID

Darrang ID

Kokrajhar ID

Trend in wild lifepopulation In order to understand the overall status of Rhino, elephant, Tiger and Swamp deer during

the last decade linear regression was used to find out thetrend. The results are shown in Table 3. Table 3 indicate that annual population of Rhino, Elephant and Tiger is increasing significantly. The rate is highest for Rhinoceros while it is lowest for Tiger.

Table 3.Population Trend among the wild life Note: * Indicate 0.05%, ** 0.01% Significant level

Animals Slope value R²

Rhino y = 51.29x + 1604. 0.997** Elephant y = 39.83x + 5135. 0.808**

Tiger y = 18.2x + 51.6 0.999**

Swamp Deer y = 32.44x + 322.9 0.805** Correlation coefficient The data were subjected to correlation analysis and the results are illustrated in figure 2. The

analysis indicates that positive relationship exists between Rhino and Swamp deer with that of forest


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cover in the state while it is reverse for elephant. For tiger, the data are insufficient for analysis. From the above study, it can be seen that there is increase in the Rhino and Swamp deer in the state of Assam. This increase also appears to be related with increase in forest cover as a result of afforestation effort taken by the government of Assam. However, other data are required for its support.

Figure 2. Scatter plot of some wild animals with forest cover in Assam

Figure 3. Scatter plot of some wild animals with allocation and expenditure in Assam


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An attempt is being made to understand the relationship between government allocation and expenditure for developing National park and Sanctuaries with that of forest cover. The scatter plot is illustrated in figure 3. The result indicates negative relationship between rhino, elephant and swamp deer with that of allocation and expenditure. However, for tiger there is a positive relationship.

Figure 4. Allocation and release for training the staff in Assam

It is interesting to note that there is an increase in initiative given by the government to train the staff protecting the animals (figure 4). Thus, all these are due to the government effort to fund more for protecting the wild life in the state.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, trend analysis reveals significant decrease for Rhinoceros poachingas well as

natural death of elephants. Further, the attacks by wild elephants on human show significant increasing/decreasing trend at Sonitpur and Goalpara district respectively. Correlation analysis indicates positive relationships exist between Rhino and Swamp deer with that of forest cover unlike elephant. In a nutshell, trend analysis reveals significant increase in Rhino, elephant, Tiger and Swamp deer during the study period.

The study concludes that providing proper adequate human resources by the state Government the animals are survived from poachers as well as from diseases. Further, the increase in forest cover goes hand in hand with the increase in animal population too. Apart from this, the state Government also funds for the welfare of the wild animals. Government allocates the fund to train the staff and this has led to an increase in wild animals and hence there is an increase in the animal population in the valley as concluded from this study.

Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to Department of Environment and Forests, Government of

Assam, India for allowing me to collect the relevant data for the present work.

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Aiyadurai A., Varma S., Menon V. (2004), Human-Predator Conflict in and around Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary,

Arunachal Pradesh, India. Poster presented at Carnivores 2004: Expanding Partnerships for Carnivore Conservation at New Mexico, U.S. 2004.

Barve N., Kiran MC., VanAraj G., Aravind NA., Rao D., Uma Shaanker R., Ganeshaiah KN., Poulsen JG. (2005), Measuring


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and Mapping Threats to a Wildlife Sanctuary in Southern India, Conservation Biology, 19, 1, pp.122 –130. Das JP., Lahkar BP., Talukdar BK. (2012), Increasing Trend of Human Elephant Conflict in Golaghat District, Assam,

India: Issues and Concerns.Gajah, 37, pp.34-37. Department of Environment & Forests Government of Assam (2014), http://assamforest.in/common/ Fernando P., Wikramanayake E., Weerakoon D., Jayasinghe LKA., Gunawardene M., Janaka HK. (2005), Perceptions and

patterns of human– elephant conflict in old and new settlements in Sri Lanka: insights for mitigation and management, Biodiversity and Conservation, 14, pp. 2465-2481.

FSI (2001-2011), India state of the Forest Report, Assam, Yearly publications from 2001-2011, http://www.fsi.org.in/cover_2011/assam.pdf

Hilaluddin KR., Ghose D. (2005), Conservation implications of wild animal biomass extractions in Northeast India, Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 28, 2, pp.169–179.

Horwich RH., Das R., Bose A. (2013), Conservation and the Current Status of the Golden Langur in Assam, India, with Reference to Bhutan, Primate Conservation, 27, pp.1-7.

Initial Management Effectiveness Evaluation Report: Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India (2003), UNESCO – IUCN Enhancing Our Heritage Project: Monitoring and Managing for Success in Natural World Heritage Sites, http://assamforest.in/knp-osc/pdfreport/kaziranga_initial_assessment_v1.pdf.

Kumar H., Subudhi SP. (2013), Assessment of grass species diversity and wild animals occurrence in van Gujjarsre located site of the Rajaji National Park in Uttarakhand, northern India, Cibtech Journal of Zoology, 2, 1, pp.30-39.

Mishra C., Datta A., Madhusudan MD. (2004), The high altitude wildlife of Western Arunachal Pradesh: a survey report. CERC Technical Report No. 8, Mysore, India, Nature Conservation Foundation, International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Conservation Society (India Program).

Maheshwari A., Takpa J., Sandeep K., Shawl T. (2010), An investigation of carnivore-human conflicts in Kargil and Drass areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Report submitted to Rufford Small Grant, Department of Wild life protection, Jammu and Kashmir Government and WWF, India.

Pokhrel S., Thapa TB. (2008), Proceedings Relative abundance and distribution of wild ungulates in suklaphanta wildlife reserve, Ecocity World Summit 2008, Department of Zoology,Tribhuvan University,Kirtipur,Kathmandu,Nepal.

Satterfield L. (2009), Trailing the Snow Leopard: Sustainable Wildlife Conservation in Ladakh (India), Mount Holyoke College, Mathematics and Religion,Submitted inpartial fulfillment of the requirements for Tibetan and Himalayan Studies, SIT Study Abroad, Spring 2009.

Shawl T., Takpa J. (2009), Status and distribution of Tibetan antelope (chiru) and associated mammals in Changchenmo Valley and Daulet Beg OldiLadakh, India, Department of Wildlife Protection, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Selvan KM., Veeraswami GG., Habib B., Lyngdoh S. (2013), Losing threatened and rare wildlife to hunting in Ziro valley, Arunachal Pradesh, India, Current Science, 104,11, 10, pp. 1492-1495.

Talukdar BK., Barman R. (2003), Man-elephant conflict in Assam, India: Is there any solution?.Gajah 22:pp. 50-56. World Wide Fund for Nature (2004), How effective are protected areas? A report prepared for the Seventh Conference of

Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity. WWF International, Switzer land. World Bank. (1999), Threats to protected areas, http://Inweb18.

worldbank.org/SSD/envext.nsf/80ByDocName?threatstoforestprotectedareassurvey1999IUCN326KBPDF/$FILE/ IUCNThreatsToForestPAsSurvey1999.pdf.




LLEEAADDEERR:: TTHHEEOORRYY AANNDD PPRRAACCTTIICCEE FFRROOMM HHUUNNGGAARRIIAANN PPOOIINNTT OOFF VVIIEEWW

CCssaabbaa PPAATTKKÓÓSS Eszterházy Károly College, Department of Geography, 3300 Eger, Leányka u. 4., Hungary,


CCssaabbaa RRUUSSZZKKAAII

Eszterházy Károly College, Department of Geography, 3300 Eger, Leányka u. 4., Hungary, e-mail: [email protected]

GGáábboorr KKOOZZMMAA

University of Debrecen, Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning, 4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1., Hungary, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The EU access of Eastern European former socialist countries has presented new frames of rural development in principles, key actors and terminology as well . In the spirit of the above our article aims to highlight the essential attributes of LEADER approach in Hungary. The most important results of our research can be summarized in the following major statements: firstly we may argue that a critical mass of participants is needed for a proper realization of individual action plans. Secondly it can be stated that LEADER principles create an overlapping and united system which set up a proper frame for the implementation of the programme additionally the whole method is different from the earlier achievements of the EU agricultural policy. Finally the Hungarian (and probably the Central European) state-of the art is quite unique because of local anomalies. Key words: LEADER, Hungary, rural development, LEADER-principles

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Community lead local development initiatives play an increasing role worldwide. From the

Sustainable Livelihood Approach projects of Eastern Africa (Farrington et al., 1999) to the Saemaul Undong (Han, 2012) complex village development cycles in South Korea the involvement of local communities seem to be the best way to solve their problems. In Europe the LEADER ('Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l'Économie Rurale') program has been introduced almost a quarter century ago and helps hundreds of local groups through financial and methodological support.

The EU access of Eastern European former socialist countries has presented new frames of rural development in principles, key actors and terminology as well. The LEADER approach has been introduced firstly in Hungary in the region as an experimental method in 2001. At that time for EU15 countries have had a decade to get acquainted with it. Even in those areas implementation of the programme raised serious questions concerning the role of different actors,


Csaba PATKÓS, Csaba RUSZKAI, Gábor KOZMA

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the succession of basic principles and the degree of local governance. Our recent article aims to highlight the essential attributes of LEADER approach in Hungary. However in the programme all principles are equally relevant the main emphasis is put on the territorial one. The case of this country can be a blueprint for the evaluation of other Central Eastern European states as Hungary has the longest experience in the implementation process.

Our article is on the one hand a review of available literature and on the other hand uses personal experiences concerning the implementation of LEADER in different Hungarian local action groups (LAGs). As our authors has worked for mainly near LAGs of the North Hungarian Region the majority of examples come from this area.

ESSENTIAL ATTRIBUTES OF LEADER RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICY The regional development initiative of European Economic Community launched in 1991

has introduced a novel approach in regional development policy. It made rural regions existing in a geographical space having different relations able to implement independent regional development initiatives. The significance of program was built on two elements: on regional catchment centre (as long as it exists), and on local and potential energies of the region, which give the critical mass provided by program participating settlements. This settlement “mass” will determine the extension of certain catchment area, “region” (Ray, 1998; Dubost, 2008).

In the initial stage of the programme Community Initiative LEADER I focused on developing regions of Objectives 1,5 b and 6. LEADER was an important segment of renewing structural policy moreover it has become the main factor of rural development policy for now (Swoboda, 2005).

LEADER laid down an approach, previously had not belonged to traditional rural regional development policy. Methodological tools of LEADER can be defined as follows: 1. Approach based on a geographically well-defined catchment area; 2. Bottom-up approach, local participation in the development processes is essential; 3. Novel definition of development demands and the thematic combination of them with all socioeconomic sub-systems (a comprehensive approach); 4. Foundation of local development-administration work teams (LAG); 5. Networking at national and communal scale; 6. Programme can support other co-operation inside the community or with any third country, if this could contribute to the development of a certain LEADER region; 7. Independent financial management during program implementation (Schucksmith, 2001).

DEFINITION OF LEADER PRINCIPLES IN A HUNGARIAN CONTEXT At the first stage of the program start seven principles were assigned by the European

Commission providing a methodological basis for Community Initiative LEADER. Considering the Hungarian example, the interpretation and practical utilization of principles could not happen without problems. This is partly explained by the fact that Hungary as a post-socialist country had several handicaps, for instance there were lack of bottom-up practice and creating local partnerships, moreover relevant administrative and communal experiences were missing (Kovách, 2000).

Evaluating the application of principles in a European scale, according to LEADER I ex-post evaluation was successful. Participating local actors understood and applied LEADER principles, contributing to the implementation of excellent local development strategies. Knowledge, appropriate interpretation and the practical use of the seven principles could be considered as an important quality indicator of program implementation, namely of local developments (Dethier et al., 1999).

Bottom-up initiation Until the introduction of LEADER program Hungary did not possess substantial regional

development experience in the field of integrated approaches applying the principle of bottom-up

LEADER: Theory and practice from Hungarian point of view

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initiation. Perhaps voluntary development initiatives of municipal associations were the closest to these approach. As a post-socialist heritage central state knew only the top-down principle where local initiatives could not play any significant role (Kornai, 1993). A state organisation structured essentially in a centralist way has remained after the collapse of the socialist system, supplying only limited opportunities for encouraging and implementing bottom-up initiatives. The Hungarian fairly bureaucratic rural development institutional system is an evidence of these phenomena (figure 1).

Figure 1. National institutional system of LEADER+ (Source: www.fvm.hu 2010.03.16, www.leader.co.hu 2007.05.06 – own edition)

Determination of certain LEADER areas was the consequence of political decision in many

cases, where functionalism and local self-organisation – as essential region forming conditions – did not play any significant role with a few exceptions. The first two short implementation phases (LEADER-type pilot programme 2001-2004 and LEADER+ „partial programme” 12005-2006) could not sufficiently deepen bottom-up practice due to the spatiotemporal discontinuity (figure 2 and 3). Despite of the fact, that the national framework conditions were not lucky for bottom-up principle, there were promising developments in the implementation of LEADER programme. Ultimately some selected action regions were launched with independent project initiations, which were implemented successfully. We could underline the Ménes-patak menti Action Group (work team), which was a pilot LEADER region in the North-Hungarian region (KROLOPP 2005); but it is worth to mention some excellent action groups of LEADER+, for instance Irány Tokaj Hegyalja, 8 Palóc+, Bodrogközi, Dél-Mátra, and Bükki Action Groups. These examples are the successful representatives of local commitment and creativity, despite the fact, that the North-Hungarian regional background has basically changed for the new period.

Area-based approach It is difficult to define area-based approach perfectly. Researchers dealing with LEADER

programme are not striving for creating a precise definition additionally in the realization organic regional frames are only partly represented. According to Barke-Newton (1997) the population of

1 LEADER+ program was the third phase of rural developmental initiation of the European Union, which realised in the 2000-2006 Community budget period. The programme could be launched only in “part time” in 2005 due to Hungary joined the EU in 2004. In accordance reduced budget were available.


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LEADER regions is at least 5 000 and not more than 100 000. The program operation happens in a geographical space, where local social conditions are the same and there are common cultural values.

Figure 2. Spatial discontinuity of LEADER LAGs in case of the Hungarian pilot and

LEADER+ cycles

Figure 3. The boom of LEADER areas in 2007 in Hungary


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Member states are relatively free to determine individual LEADER regions, since each LEADER EC regulations gave them great latitude. For instance in France the definition of potential LEADER-applicant rural regions was based on a scheme from 1975. According to Karl Bruckmeier (2000) in case of German LEADER regions local identity and the scope of activities of local actors are determining spatial factors, at the same time administrative boundaries play only a secondary role. Regions are stated as being built along the manifestations of spatial interactions. Corresponding to the German example the methodological guide of LEADER II stated local identity deriving from cultural, historical and landscape roots the fundament of regional coherency.

According to opinions read in the chapter of remarks and recommendations of ex-post evaluation documents the involvement of small and medium towns must gain priority in the definition of LEADER regions, since the extraction of rural towns in the time of LEADER II became a confusing factor in the unified identity areas (LEADER II Ex-Post Evaluation 2003). The study of European LEADER II Coordination Centre argued that urban centres play an important role in generating development of their region. The example of the Andalusian Rhonda city demonstrates how dynamic development can be achieved in case of a little town, which has growing tourism attractiveness. Its residents formed an association which collected important keynotes and data about local prominent people and initiatives through spatial data collection in order to increase development efficiency.

According to the bulletin published to LEADER + program spatial terminology of the European Commission can be treated in a more nuanced way, namely „smaller rural-nature regions are the targets of LEADER+ program, which form a coherent entity in the sense of geography, economy and society. The human resource capacity, economic potential of selected regions and the utilization of supports form a critical mass” (Europäische Kommission, 2000). In this way there is an opportunity to implement a development strategy, which is operable for a longer term (Molnár & Pénzes, 2008).

As mentioned earlier, the European Commission instructions concerning LEADER principles provided some space for determining the definition of spatiality, since process of rural development-oriented region creation was defined in a less exact way. Definition could be derived from the spatial model of CHRISTALLER or LÖSCH, based on market, transportation and administration principles (Kozma, 2003). Incidentally physical geographical and landscape characteristics linked to identities could be considered as basis, but physical geographical landscape units are not equal to regional identity regions in many cases. In so far as the concept of landscape involves the cultural aspects as well, it definitely overlaps (Meier et al., 2010).

In Hungary during the implementation phases geographical, social and economic coherency was not taken into consideration in the creation of rural development LEADER regions - only some exceptions could be found. This approach did not change in the 2007-2013 period. Permanently changing spatial background is the evidence of decreasing the significance of this principle. The experimental program set up a top-down spatial structure, which did not change significantly in the LEADER+ phase. Several LEADER regions overlapped election districts through the 2007-2013 period (Chevalier & Maurel, 2012).

Local partnership The principle of local partnership as horizontal self-governance activity was established

through the bottom-up principle. The quality of partnership is shown by higher entrepreneurial and civil participation, while the representation of government sector should be maximized in 50 %.

To provide civil participation is often difficult, since on the one hand civil sector was weak at the time of launching LEADER – which was even typical in rural regions – and on the other hand voluntary social activities through civil organizations did not have significant role (Vadász, 2002; Osváth, 2009). Enterprises deficient in founds were over-represented in the Hungarian rural


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regions. For this reason they could carry out the expected development and innovation potentials only to a limited extent (Buzás et al., 2003; Faluvégi 2004).

Integrated approach According to the bulletin of European Commission LEADER development programme

does not focus on only one sector or target group, which is appropriate only to carry out sectorial developments. Instead development strategies implementing it at a regional scale had a multi-sectorial character. Measures and projects defined in local strategy form a coherent entity. It is worth to mention the flagship priority approach applied in the community initiative phase, namely multi-sectorial measures are generally support a single main development objective. We could highlight the example of Irány Tokaj-Hegyalja Local LEADER+ Action Group, where wine tourism was the flagship and relating development measures were for example infrastructure development, nature conservation measures, local product development and region marketing, etc. (Michalkó, 2011)

Innovative approach LEADER+ programme – it is the mature phase of implementing Community Initiative

LEADER – has deepened further the relevance of the prior topic in local development conceptions (Europäische Kommission, 2000, p. 139/7). The greatest innovation potential could be achieved by this multi-sectorial priority approach in the field of LAGs.

As creation of LEADER groups were mainly a top-down controlled process in Hungary – wide range of local partnerships were missing in several cases –, strategic measures of certain regions were realizable only partly. Short program cycles did not contribute to the diffusion of innovations consequently they were significant hindering factors of local value-added creation. Conversely spread of a planning culture due to innovation demand should be emphasized as a positive aspect. It made local partnerships able to implement independently their own ideas and development visions without any central intervention. The over-bureaucratized execution destroyed the patience of many local actors through the implementation, which can be derived from top-down approach (Kassai & Farkas, 2007).

Regional management According to the European interpretation of LEADER principles local financial

management carried out at own responsibility is one of the key factors in the success of LAGs. This responsibility exceeds the narrow sense administrative and management activities. Furthermore this type of local financing concerns the area of central government in a sensitive way. It was typical not only in the first implementation phases of LEADER, but nowadays as well. For instance the most important issues relating to the preparing period 2014-2020 of Land Hessen were about this issue.

Provincial development agencies would have risked their own sovereignty in the field of financing, in case of the introduction of multi-fund CLLD approach (supported from more funding, Community-led Local Development), therefore the provincial parliament did not support the launch of rural development financed from more funds. They remained in the one-fund LEADER CLLD program (ACCORDING TO THE INTERVIEW WITH SONJA PAULY – LEADER OF

„VEREIN REGIONALENTWICKLUNG SCHWALM-AUE E.V.” ACTION GROUP). Thus member states get fairly large freedom in certain financial questions in the aspect of LEADER.

Financial implementation and local management activities were coordinated by de-concentrated organisations of central state in Hungary, creating many times parallelisms through implementation. Payments from public funds are definitely entitled to the Hungarian State Treasury, which addressed the awarded grants to the respective managing authority (368/2011, XII. 31., Government Decree). Therefore the LAGs were the executors of LEADER programme only to a certain sense, they had not right to carry out direct payments.


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Networking Networking is an important element of LEADER principles. The establishment of networks

essentially can happen in three levels. At the first level all LEADER action groups of the European Union can be found, so it provides essential geographical information about action groups, their strategies and the highlighted projects. The European Network for Rural Development (ENRD) and European LEADER Association for Rural Development (ELARD) initiatives offer more detailed information for participants of rural development and international cooperation. The ENRD database could be considered incomplete in a Hungarian context, and unfortunately it is not updated in many cases. The Rural Review periodical is another tool operating at the European level functioning as a best practice collection for every network member and provides further opportunities.

Hungarian action groups of the pilot phase had not got any opportunity to participate in these European systems. In the North-Hungarian action groups at the LEADER+ phase we did not find any trace of international cooperation in the strategies, only study tours represent the common European spirit. It can be explained by limited implementation time frames.

The next stage of network organisation is the national level, which is based on the distribution of experiences and ideas in a relatively more defined way, because there is a common language and unified political, administrative frame. In contrast to European networking possibilities Hungarian ones are closer to action groups, since through the national network directions of Common Agricultural Policy, partner finding information and events are available in Hungarian language. In contrast with German network centre, the Hungarian LEADER centres have never had significant role in representing LEADER regions, moreover its function was suspended in 2010 due to malpractice. Its website, www.leader.co.hu can’t be opened for years now.

The third level is the area of action groups and cooperation culture of related actors. The stronger the cooperation willingness among local members is, the more efficient the created contact network is in a long term. A strong, regional network might provide an appropriate basis for the fruitful implementation of local development strategies and might strengthen the identification of local actors, so they could participate with more success in new grant periods.

According to our experiences the creation of local networks was a significant challenge for LEADER regions in Hungary. Local actors had many times doubts against practical implementation of close cooperation. Unfortunately willingness to think together lasted mainly as as long the distribution of development funds were in foreground. The refreshing exception is the 1 village 1 MW program of the former Bükk-MAK LEADER LAG, although other defined objectives did not implied wide-range network initiatives. (Vass, 2013) The reasons of these limits can be sought in the follows: non-viable area definition for long-term, difficult administrative implementation and the lack of cooperation culture.

CONCLUSIONS In our article we summarized basic principles of LEADER approach as part of a universal

frame determining successful realization of related national programmes anywhere. As this approach is based on locally made community decisions only consideration of these principles can make different implementations comparable to each other at a European level. Firstly we may argue that a critical mass of participants is needed for a proper realization of individual action plans.

Secondly it can be stated that LEADER principles create an overlapping and united system which set up a proper frame for the implementation of the programme additionally the whole method is different from the earlier achievements of the EU agricultural policy. Finally the Hungarian (and probably the Central European) state of the art is quite unique because of local anomalies. These differences are partly the inheritance of the socialist past but partly come from the socio-political characters of the post socialist state (Dávid et al., 2010).

We may state that fairly bureaucratic rural development institutional system can prevent bottom-up approach from prevailing.


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Some malfunctions could be found in case of area-based approach as well as natural and social landscapes are of secondary importance against short-term political interests in the determination of the area of different LAGs. As a consequence the lack of spatial continuity in LAGs makes these formations ephemeral. That is why local and micro-regional identities can’t be declared as key sources of rural development.

Many risks can be found in case of local partnership as a decisive principle in Hungary as civil organizations and local enterprises are very often too weak to help the mobilization of indigenous potential. Notwithstanding this problem is beyond the scope of LEADER approach it can make the functioning of the programme delusory.

The diffusion of innovation as a key principle is pending on the spread of information through confined co-operations among actors. Unfortunately short program cycles can contribute to the failure of LEADER making information flow difficult and uneven. In connection with it international connections of Hungarian groups are sparse and occasional.

For short-duration Hungarian LAGs being a regional management node seem to be difficult as their activities are restrained by central authorities including planning, decision making and finance.

Summarizing the whole situation we may state that vulnerable rural areas and communities are facing many challenges. In its recent form it is ambiguous whether LEADER approach can help to solve them. The question can be raised whether the Hungarian LEADER way is to be declared a real LEADER way or it is just a resemblance of the original one.

Acknowledgements This paper was supported by the János Bolyai Research Scholarship (BO/00542/13/10) of

the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

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Természettudományi Kar Földtudományi Doktori Iskola, Budapest.


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Swoboda J. (2005), LEADER – ein Methodenkasten für die Regionalentwicklung in Europa, Entwicklung und ländlicher Raum, no 5, pp. 20-22

Vadász I. (2002), Az öntevékeny társadalmi szervezetek (egyesületek, alapítványok) történeti földrajzi elemzése Magyarországon 1878-1996, Ember és környezete - A Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Megyei Múzeumok Közleményei 58, Szolnok.

Vass, L. (2013), 1 village = 1 MW » programme. Best practice identified within Climact-Regions, Northern Hungary.




CCRROOSSSS--BBOORRDDEERR PPRROOJJEECCTTSS –– MMEEAANNSS FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBLLEE TTOOUURRIISSMM DDEEVVEELLOOPPMMEENNTT AALLOONNGG TTHHEE RROOMMAANNIIAANN--HHUUNNGGAARRIIAANN BBOORRDDEERR

CCăăttăălliinnaa--MMaarriiaa BBÂÂTTEEAA ((BBOOTTAA)) „Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, Cluj-Napoca 5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to emphasize the linkage between establishing cross-border relations and tourism development by focusing on ten tourism projects implemented under Hungary-Romania Cross-Border Co-operation Programme (2007-2013). The study area comprises the two neighbouring counties of Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg, the border connecting two areas characterised by social and economic similarities. Building on a solid foundation, as the first Hungarian-Romanian cross-border initiatives were launched nearly two decades ago, the two counties work together towards the shared aim of developing business infrastructure, cross-border trade, culture and tourism. The present study examines the relevance of cross-border projects viewed from the perspective of sustainable tourism development in two peripheral counties featuring similar resources. Moreover, the investigation is based on consultation of project documents, reports and promotional materials, against the theoretical framework of cross-border cooperation and regional development. Key words: cross-border cooperation, sustainable tourism, thematic routes

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INTRODUCTION Although the term of border traditionally implies separation, dividing places in political,

social, economic and cultural terms, within the European Union borders lost their former significance (Knippenberg & Markusse, 1999). According to the new perspectives on border analysis, state boundary functions are no longer perceived as barriers but a bridge between the communities situated on both sides, establishing a linkage of cultural and economic interest (Ilieș, 2003; Ricq, 2006). Moreover, border areas are frequently characterised as having a high cross-border interaction potential, especially when facing a series of issues at territorial, socio-economic, cultural and institutional level (Popa, 2006).

When analysing the phenomenon of cross-border interaction, Martinez (1994) proposes four models of borderlands interaction: alienated, co-existent, interdependent and integrated. In the first case, the cross-border interaction is absent and tension prevails while co-existent borderlands feature limited binational relations, the border remaining slightly open. Interdependent borderlands are characterised by stability and establishment of cooperative relationships, whilst the last


Cross-Border Projects-Means for Sustainable Tourism Development…

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proposed model, namely the interdependent borderland, describes functionally merged economies, unrestricted movement of goods and people across the frontier. Based on these features, it can be concluded that, at present, the Romanian-Hungarian boundary represents an example of interdependent borderland, where stability and a favourable economic climate create opportunities for cross-border interactions, as well as developing social and cultural relations. However, state boundary function changed over the years as a result of historical events. In the case of the Romanian-Hungarian border, the frontier function shifted from filtration (after the Treaty of Triannon, signed in 1920) to separation and demarcation during socialism. After the fall of the communist regime the frontier regained its filtration function but Romania’s entry to Schengen zone will eventually lead to an open frontier (Kádár & Rab, 2012).

Against this background, the issue of cross-border cooperation and sustainable development have gained more interest in recent years as transboundary relations have been referred to as tools for surmounting the regions’ peripheral state (Tokes & Lenkey, 2013). Studies and reaserches conducted in this field provide manifold possibilities of promoting cross-border cooperation, emphasizing the role played by the university system in joining together communities and economic agents from the border area (Herman et al., 2012) or focusing on public services in euroregional context (Bădulescu et al., 2013). One of the means of achieving the goal of sustainability is also represented by tourism partnerships, a viable solution within a cross-border context due to its capacity to improve access to funding, create a link between several actors (locals, decision makers, visitors), decrease conflict and raise public awareness (Pfuller et al., 2011; Prokkola, 2008). According to Committee of Regions (2006), in border regions tourism may become a means for development due to its ability to reinvigorate rural areas, by increasing employment and generating additional revenues through the development of culture and nature-based activities. At the same time, the creation of tourism destinations in peripheral areas could also sustain a balanced distribution of economic activities (figure 1).

Figure 1. The synthetic scheme of the opportunities created by sustainable tourism development in cross-border areas

THE SUMMARY OF HUNGARY-ROMANIA CROSS-BORDER CO-OPERATION

PROGRAMME, 2007-2013 The current Romanian-Hungarian cross-border cooperation initiatives are laid on firm

foundation, as the two adjacent countries have participated in cross-border programmes since 1996 and benefitted from pre-accession funds. Thus, between 1996-2003 the allocated budget for the Romanian counties involved in Phare CBC Programme reached 28 million Euro and for the Hungarian side nearly 34 million Euro. The general objective was represented by framing regional development strategies for the eight counties sepparated by the borderline, promoting openness and creation of partnerships (Miclăuș, 2002).

Hungary-Romania Co-operation Programme, 2007-2013 extends previous experiences in the field of common development strategies meant to strengthen economic and social cohesion (Interreg III A, 2000-2006 and Phare CBC RO-HU, 2004-2006). Against this background, the programme strategy pursues to bring various stakeholders closer to one another in order to better

Opportunities inferred by sustainable tourism development in cross-border areas

Access EU funding for sustainable

management of resources and development of

regional tourism strategies

Revitalise local economy increasing employment,

creating local brands based on ecological

products and handicrafts

Create an image national and

international visibility of tourism destinations

and their offer

Cătălina-Maria BÂTEA (BOTA)

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utilize the opportunities deriving from the joined development of border regions. The programme is financed through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), granting 85% of the total project budget, completed with the national public funding (incorporating both the co-financing of the two Member States involved in the programme and the applicants’ contribution).

The projects were designed so as to meet at least two of the following criteria connected to joint development, implementation, management and funding, implying the existence of minimum two partners. Another condition relates to the fact that only projects bearing transboundary character and impact can be awarded. On the one hand, cross-border character refers to any problem / need / opportunity present of both sides of the borderline and which can be effectively solved only through a transboundary approach. On the other hand, cross-border impact implies that interventions are manifested on both sides of the border, on long-term its advantages are durable and measurable. The activity or intervention is intended to satisfy real needs (http://www.huro-cbc.eu/en/overview/).

The eligible border area consists in eight NUTS III level counties: Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg, Hajdú-Bihar, Békés and Csongrád in Hungary; respectively Satu Mare, Bihor, Arad and Timiş in Romania. The intervention area presents similar economic and social conditions (rather weak SME sector, high unemployment rate in rural areas, poor accessibility of small rural settlements situated in the proxmity of the borderline). The intervention area reaches 4 million inhabitants, it covers a surface of 50 454 km2 and is crossed by important rivers (Someș, Barcău, Crișuri, Mureș) which bind the neighbouring counties, creating further opportunities for cross-border cooperation.

DATA AND METHODS The present study has been developed in two stages and makes use of qualitative methods.

The first phase of the research was based on the study of bibliographic materials and sources of secondary data (official studies, evaluation reports, programme documents and website, promotional materials), which provided a framework for discussing the relation between cross-border cooperation and tourism development. The second stage uses the case study approach, the focus being mainly on the cross-border tourism projects implemented in Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties, analysing their most significant results.

ROMANIAN-HUNGARIAN CROSS-BORDER RELATIONS AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

The present paper focuses on the two adjacent counties of Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and explores the links between the cross-border projects developed within Hungary-Romania Cross-Border Co-operation Programme (2007-2013) and the goal of sustainable tourism development. As stated by the Committee of Regions (2006), particular attention should be given to the sustainability of the tourism industry in which five goals have been identified, as it follows:

- promoting environment protection and sustainable development; - redefining the place of tourism in the regional economy through the establishment of

strategic objectives and planning; - improving cooperation between regions and states on a territorial basis, contributing thus

to increase the cohesion of regions within the EU; - improving collaborative relations and partnerships between the stakeholders involved in

tourism development at all governance levels (particularly to dissemination of partnerships between public and private actors);

- supporting initiatives that lead to an operational implementation of sustainable tourism through proper funding, including in the field of natural and cultural values protection;

- creating competitive tourist products (such as thematic routes) based on restored values and modernised facilities.


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The two adjacent counties of Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg (figure 2) are a component of the Carpathian Euroregion, founded in 1993 and also border Ukraine and Slovakia, a favourable position which encourages transboundary cooperation in different sectors. The study area is characterised by a succession of varied landscapes, among which the plain covers the largest surface (Nyírség, Rétköz, Szatmár-Bereg, Someș and Carei Plains), bordered by hills (Crasna and Codrului Hills) and low mountains (Oaș and Igniș). The movement of people and goods across the border is assured by the following crossing points:

- roadway: Petea - Csengersima (goods and passenger traffic, transport of dangerous waste); - roadway: Urziceni - Vállaj (passenger traffic); - railway: Carei - Ágerdőmajor (international passenger and goods traffic). The road and railway border crossing points are completed by the two airports from Satu

Mare and Nyíregyháza. The accessibility in the cross-border area is improved by the two rehabilitated roads:

Sanislău - Őmböly (finalised in 2013, project awarded with 4 810 506.15 € through ERDF) and Lazuri - Zajta (finalised in 2013, with a total ERDF contribution of 3 903 819.65 €).

Figure 2. The two adjacent counties of Satu Mare (Romania) and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg (Hungary)

(Source: own ellaboration based on OpenStreetMap) In the case of Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties a number of 104 projects

were implemented under Hungary-Romania Co-operation Programme, 2007-2013. In order to better utilise the touristic potential of the area, the shared interventions aimed to protect, rehabilitate and promote the most representative assets from both sides of the border, improve their accessibility and establish joint tourism destinations. Hence, an integrated approach can be distinguished as the stand-alone investments were replaced with a new concept, namely the creation of thematic routes, linking rehabilitated historical monuments and natural areas which are thus sustainably promoted. The actions undertaken in this regard include (Evaluation of the Hungary-Romania Cross-Border Co-operation Programme 2007-13):


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- preparation of studies, plans and strategies in the field of conservation, development and joint use of natural and cultural legacy;

- designation of awareness-raising campaigns and consultations regarding the protection, development and promotion of tourist resources;

- sustainable utilisation of the region’s tourist potential by investments in the field of tourism infrastructure;

- preservation and promotion of the intangible heritage through cultural events bearing cross-border dimensions.

In the analysed area, during 2007-2013 the cross-border relations were focused on nine key areas of intervention, reaching a total budget of 61.8 million Euro, amount of which over 52 million Euro was awarded by ERDF (figure 3). Moreover, the study indicates that most projects focused on environment protection (20 projects) while the 14 projects regarding the improvement of transport infrastructure were provided almost 40 % of the funding sustained by ERDF, namely over 21 million euro.

Figure 3. Total budget of the implemented projects within Hungary-Romania Cross-Border Co-operation Programme, 2007-2013 in the study area

Source: http://www.huro-cbc.eu/en/financed_projects/

The concern for the development of common tourism attractions as priority 2 of the

analysed programme, led to the joined fulfilment of ten projects with a total budget of approximately 5.7 million euro (table 1). The implemented projects take into account both the natural values of the area (curative thermal and mineral springs, water bodies and rivers, protected areas) and cultural heritage assets which together frame the region’s touristic offer. The investigation upon the cross-border tourism projects has revealed the concern for joint development of thematic routes build around cultural values, which are supplemented with health, leisure and active tourism elements.

Table 1. Cross-border tourism projects finalised in the period of 2007-2013 (Data source: http://www.huro-cbc.eu/en/financed_projects/)

Project title Total project

budget (€) Total ERDF awarded (€)

Project end date

Plums as connecting link in the development of tourism in Szatmár Region

212 116 172 757 November 30th 2010


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Route of medieval churches in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and Satu Mare counties

89 138.8 75 767.98 May 31st

2011 Organisation of interactive exhibitions in the castle of Carei and the manor-house at Szabolcs and their marketing in the context of cross-border tourism

1 010 231 858 696.35 May 31st

2011

Joint tourism development in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and Satu Mare counties, built upon historical and natural resources, viewed in terms of active leisure

187 879.81 153 224.09 July 31st

2011

Gastronomic journey in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and Satu Mare counties

148 760 121 802.32 June 30th

2012

Legends of Szatmár 152 220 124 286.18 March 31st

2012 Development of touristic portal and database on the tourist attractions of the eight cross-border counties

401 828.22 330 637.8 December 24th 2012

Co-operation between Nyírbátor and Carei for joint development of cross-border tourist destination

1 536 230 1 305 795.5 August 31st

2014 Realisation, extension and rehabilitation of museal sites in Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties, in the context of cross-border tourism

595 621 506 227.85 September 30th 2014

Mary’s Trail: Protection and presentation of mutual religious tourism values

1 384 574 1 176 887.9 September 30th 2014

Relevance of joint tourism development and destination building projects The examination of the cross-border projects implemented under the analysed cooperation

programme in the field of tourism, as well as further initiatives bearing beneficial effects on this industry, have revealed their role in strengthening the region’s image as a cross-border tourism destination. Although encountering challenges and difficulties, the aim of sustainability in the field of tourism was achieved through the following pillars:

a) Increasing the attractiveness of the two border counties through the revival of cultural tourism represented one of the major concerns. A significant step in this respect would be the restoration and reinsertion of the Károlyi castle from Carei into the tourist circuit, as well as the archaeological site from Medieșu Aurit or Ady Endre and Vasile Lucaciu memorial houses from Satu Mare county. In the case of the neighbouring county, such initiatives were concentrated towards the Village Museum from Sóstó, Mudrány manor house in Szabolcs (housing intractive and historic interiors exhibitions), Bessenyei György memorial house in Tiszabercel or other religious monuments. The imposing edifice from Carei has become a landmark, to which numerous cultural events and further development directions are connected. Such attempts aim at imposing Carei as a cross-border tourist destination and are materialised in collaborative efforts to revitalise the castle’s arboretum and manège or to promote interactive exhibitions in a cross-border context (by creating partnerships with similiar cultural institutions from Nyírbátor, Szabolcs or Gébérjen). The relevance of cross-border projects in the field of cultural tourism is best reflected in the increase of visitors’ number. Thus, according to the activity report drawn by Satu Mare County Museum, in 2013 the exhibitions hosted by the museum network, as well as the memorial and traditional houses in the county, attracted about 73 300 visitors, an increase by nearly 49% as against the year of 2010 (which registered 36 158 visitors). b) The designation of thematic tours to promote the tourist assets from the two adjoining counties presents a thorough cross-border character, being best examples of cooperation based on bilateral and multilateral partnerships (Kovács & Nagy, 2013). Border regions are often considered as economically disadvantaged, in these areas such tourism products appear as viable development opportunities (Kovács & Martyin, 2013). Relevant examples in this respect are represented by the introduction of a common brand, based on a fruit which is considered as treasure of the Szatmar region (namely the plum) and also the connection of several tourism routes (Plum Route, The Route of Medieval Churches, Gastronomic Journey, Cycling Paths). To be noted that the usage of


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a gastronomic element (the plum and its derivatives) constitutes the first shared initiative to create a brand and an attempt to define local identity. The Plum Route currently connects 27 settlements from Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county and 10 from Satu Mare county, bringing forward the region’s traditions and culinary heritage. As components of cultural routes, such thematic paths have been conceived in order to market the most representative values in the analysed area, thus becoming a link between two communities bearing certain affinities but which are sepparated by the borderline. Thereby, The Route of Medieval Churches becomes a competitive tourist product achieved by interconnecting values belonging to the same spectrum (religious heritage), whose designation involves cross-border efforts of specialists from various fields: art, patrimony, history, marketing, tourism. The route distinguished itself as a harmonised cross-border project implemented in oder to rehabilitate, protect and promote the cultural heritage values from the Carpathian Basin, linking settlements from Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg, Satu Mare and Transcarpathia. c) Promoting ecotourism and cultivating respect towards natural values have grown into a goal subsumed within the domain of environment protection. A cross-border approach regarding this field represents a necessity as environmental threats cannot be delimited by the border and the two counties face similar problems (river pollution, deforestation, wetlands drainage, lack of a uniform system of monitoring species of interest). In a cross-border context, sustainable tourism tends to promote the development of several directions which are suitable for the analysed area: adventure, recreation, study, scientific and ecotourism (Bâtea, 2013). The last type is sustained by three favourable prospects: elements of flora, fauna and the rich cultural heritage, a result of the cohabitation between different ethnic groups, namely Romanians, Hungarians and Germans. The region’s natural assets (wetlands, sandy grasslands, freshwater habitats, forested and steppe areas preserving species of community interest) have contribuited to the sites’ designation as part of the Natura 2000 network. Over 20 Natura 2000 sites have been identified in the proximity of the borderline, encouraging the creation of a Transboundary Nature Park, as in the case of Carei Plain – Bátorliget (Papp, 2008). In fact, in many parts of the world such parks and nature reserves have crossed over the borderline, becoming a prominent attraction and a significant component of the regional tourism offer (Timothy, 2000). Moreover, transboundary parks rely on cross-border cooperation and partnerships between stakeholders, whose management plans promote conservation, balance, integration and therefore may lead to a more sustainable environment (Doppelfeld, 2006).

d) The last aspect refers to development and rehabilitation of transport infrastructure as priority 1 of Hungary-Romania Cross-Border Co-operation Programme, 2007-2013. This intervention had implications in terms of improving the cross-border mobility and the touristic appeal of the border region. The accomplishment of the three cycling routes and the two rehabilitated roads implies a high cross-border character, aiming to create direct links between communities. These projects have partially achieved their goal, namely to connect rural settlements from the vicinity of the border, strengthen cross-border relations and diversify the region’s recreational offer. If taking into account that cycling market in Europe is rising, the endeavour to create such cross-border routes appears as commendable. In addition, cycling tourism represents an environmentally sustainable type of tourism, having minimal impact on host communities and environment (Vujko & Plavša, 2013). On the other hand, the shortcoming consists in overlooking certain facts, for instance the cross-border cycle route entitled „On two wheels in Szatmar”, developed on the banks of Someș river (between Satu Mare and Fehérgyarmat) can be travelled through only when the temporary border crossing point from Oar is opened.

CONCLUSIONS Based on the aspects mentioned above, it is concluded that the implementation of cross-

boder projects represents a solution for achieving the desired aim of sustainability in tourism. In the case of Satu Mare and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties the level of transboundary


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cooperation is relatively high and has been maintained through institutionally established relations since 1990s. Based on previous experiences, the recent finalised co-operation programme meant the joint implementation of 104 projects covering 9 domains, tourism industry included. This paper was centred on the main results of Hungary-Romania Co-operation Programme, 2007-2013 and the developed partnerships in the field of tourism. In this respect, the study has revealed that the cooperation between Romanian and Hungarian interest groups (municipalities, entrepreneurs, non-profit organisations, cultural institutions) had positive effects on the visibility and diversification of the region’s tourist offer. The thematic routes represent an example of good practice but still require additional efforts to ensure their proper promotion and operation. Within this context, one may conclude that cross-boder relations are beneficial to tourism development because they offer local entrepreneurs improved accces to funding. One the other hand, tourism provides a close connection not only between partners, but also between specialists from different fields consulted during project implementation.

Aknowlegments This paper is a result of a doctoral research made possible by the financial support of the

Sectorial Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the European Social Fund, under the project POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391 - „Doctoral and postdoctoral excellence programs for training highly qualified human resources for research in the fields of Life Sciences, Environment and Earth”.

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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online August 01, 2014 August 29, 2014 September 30, 2014



CCOOMMPPAARRIISSOONN OOFF NNIINNEE IIMMAAGGEE CCLLAASSSSIIFFIICCAATTIIOONN MMEETTHHOODDSS OONN LLAANNDDSSAATT 77 IIMMAAGGEERRYY

VViiccttoorr SSTTRRÎÎMMBBUU Norwegian University of Live Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management,

Høgskoleveien 12, 1430 Ås, Norway, e-mail: [email protected]

VVllaadd SSTTRRÎÎMMBBUU

University of Alberta, Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sciences, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta 2-14 Agriculture Forestry Centre, Edmonton, AB Canada T6G 2P5, e-mail: [email protected]

WWeesslleeyy PPAALLMMEERR

Louisiana Tech University, Colege of Applied and Natural Sciences,School of Forestry, Louisiana Tech University, P. O. Box 10138, Ruston, LA 71272, USA, e-mail: [email protected]

JJeeaann GGOOUURRDD

Louisiana Tech University, Colege of Engineering and Science, Department of Computer Science Louisiana Tech University, Nethken Hall 247, Ruston, LA 71272, USA, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Nine different widely used classification methods available in ArcGIS and ERDAS software packages weretested on Landsat 7 imagery with the objective to compare their performance and adequacy in classifying six major land cover elements: urban/commercial, residential, bare soil, vegetation, forest and water. A brief background for each classification method was provided, after which the results of each algorithm were visually compared and analyzed. Finally, the kappa coefficient was used as a quantitative metric to asses the agreement between methods. This study showed that different results are obtained when using different classification methods; in consequence the classification method must be carefully selected according to the objective and the available data.. The finality of this work is to provide the average GIS software user with the understanding on how the classification method impacts the classification result, and a starting point in deciding what GIS software tool would be more appropriate given a certain context and goal. Key words: ArcGIS, ERDAS Imagine, gis, landsat, land cover, remote sensing

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Remotely sensed image classification is central to obtaining reliable land use and land

cover information, with applications in urban planning (Lu & Weng, 2006; Pinho et al., 2012), agriculture (Vibhute & Bodhe, 2012), forest management (Fu et al., 2010) and ecological


Victor STRÎMBU, Vlad STRÎMBU, Wesley PALMER, Jean GOURD

144

management (Vannier et al., 2011). Moreover, the growing threat of climate change demands accurate periodical land cover information, which has become crucial for understanding the environment dynamics (Pielke, 2005).

Regardless of the application field, image classification has been performed ever since the onset of the information age, as a semi-automated or automated process,allowing the possibility to process large amounts of data fast and at a limited cost. On the down side, as with any other machine vision process, the accuracy is a matter of concern that must be evaluated and maximized.When performing multispectral image classification, there are several impediments that may hamper the quality of the results. Some originate in the quality of the remotely sensed image, some have to do with parameterization and the way a user operates a classification tool and some are inherent in the particular classification algorithm. Here we focus on the latter case simply because it cannot be circumvented. The primary objectiveof this paper is to compare nine different classification methods featured by two widely used GIS software packages: ArcGIS and ERDAS.

In the first section of the paper we provide some background information on the concept and mathematical consruction of each method. In the second section, each classifier is used on an complex Landsat 7 satellite image, with the objective of identifying six landcover classes. Lastly we compare the results using visual and quantitative methods and try to provide the GIS user the information necessary to select the appropriate tool.

BACKGROUND Image Classification Image classification is the process that categorizes the image pixels into meaningful classes

with the purpose to identify regions with similar qualities. In remote sensing, image classification is applied to satellite or aerial imagery with the aim to create a thematic map. As remotely sensed imagery usually features multiple spectral bands, the classification is performed in a multidimensional space with as many dimensions as there are bands. In terms of general classification strategies, it can be divided into two: supervised classification and unsupervised classification. The supervised strategy is aided by the user throughestablishing the target classes and providing their spectral signatures. The unsupervised classification on the other hand, attempts to group the pixels without any prior knowledge of the target classes. In the case of the unsupervised classification the procedure is equivalent to clustering and the two terms may be used interchangeably.

Supervised Classification Supervised classification relies on the availability of a predefined number of classes as well

as training data for each class. In the case of multi-band image classification, the training data consists ofcertain image regions that are known to belong to a particular class. A so called class signature is derived from each training region. The classification procedure uses these known class signature to decide the class membership of each image pixel.

Maximum Likelihood Maximum Likelihood (ML) classification uses the mean and standard deviation of the

training samples for each class (figure1). For this reason it relies on the assumption that the training data are normally distributed. Every pixel is classified based on the maximum probability calculated from the normal distributions of each class. When the class proportions are known, it is possible to define a priori probabilities in order to facilitate decisions for those pixels with relatively close probabilities of belonging to more classes. In addition, the ArcGIS implementation allows the user to specify the percentage of pixels to be left out when the probability ofbelongingtoany of the classes is small. It is the only supervised classifier offered by ArcGIS.

Comparison of Nine Image Classification Medthods on Landsat 7 Imagery

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Figure 1. Probability distribution functions (a) of normaly distributed training samples (b) for two different

classes depicted here in green and red. Here only two bands are illustrated for better visualization Mahalanobis Distance The MahalanobisDistance (MhD) classifier works on the assumption that the pixel values

of each band are normally distributed. The Mahalanobis distance between every pixel and a class is calculated by: MhD=(X-M_c )^T (〖Cov〗_c^(-1))(X-M_c), where c identifies a particular class, X is the measurement vector of the candidate pixel, M_c is the mean vector of the signature of class c, 〖Cov〗_c is the covariance matrix of the pixels in the signature of class c, and T is the transposition function. Each pixel will be assigned to the class that minimizes MhD.

Minimum Distance The Minimum Distance (MD) classifier assigns pixels to classes based only on Euclidian

distance between the pixel coordinate in the multiband hyperspace and the mean signature of the class. It is the simplest rule for unsupervised classification and does not make any assumptions on how data or class signatures are distributed. Every pixel will be assigned to the class that minimizes the distance:MD=√(∑_(i=1)^n 〖(μ_ci-X_i)〗^2),where n is the number of bands (dimensions), i identifies a particular band, c identifies a class, X_i is the value of the candidate pixel in band i, and μ_ci is the mean signature value of the class c in band i.

Spectral Angle Mapper Spectral angle mapper (SAM) is based on the fact that pixels of the same class may have

significant spectral distance between them due to different degrees of illumination. This classifier is invariant to illumination intensity and may be used on composite images of heterogeneous illumination and contrast. In SAM classification every pixel is assigned to the class with which it forms a minimal spectral angle (figure 2). The spectral angle is similar for those pixels that maintain a constant proportion between values in different bands. In other words the intensity recorded by each band is not important as long as inter-band value ratio is maintained.

Spectral Correlation Mapper The Spatial Correlation Mapper (SCM) is an improvement of SAM published by de Carvalho and Meneses in 2000 (Carvalho & Meneses, 2000). It differs from SAM in the fact that it normalizes and centers the data in the mean of each spectrum. Furthermore, it uses the cosine of the spectral angle, making it very similar to the Pearsonian Correlation Coefficient.


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Figure 2.The spectral angle formed between training samples of two different classes: green and red. For

illustrative purpose only two bands are used Unsupervised Classification The unsupervised strategy is entirely automated and for this reason the number of resulting classes is unknown. In general, the number of classes may be controlled to a certain degree through parameterization, but in most cases manual post processing is necessary to obtain the desired classification. As a rule of thumb, the number of classes resulted after unsupervised classification must be greater than the target number of classes. This way the target classes may be obtained by merging several unsupervised classes. Unsupervised classification is also used when the desired classes are not prior known and the user is responsible for the semantics of the resulting classes. Unsupervised classification has its theoretical foundation and is closely related to and cluster analysis, and for this reason some of the methods bear the term clustering. K-means Clustering K-means clustering algorithm is one of the most used clustering procedures having the merit to be simple and effective. It was first described by James MacQueen in 1967(MacQueen, 1967). Performing k-means clustering requires the number of clusters to be known a priori. K-means clustering minimizes: ,where is is centre of cluster j and x_i^((j)) is the i-th data point (or pixel) that belongs to cluster j.

Algorithm 1. Pseudocode for k-means clustering.Paramaters: K - number of clusters, I_MAX - maximum number of iterations, and ACS_Th - average cluster centre shift threshold (convergence threshold)

I:=0 place K cluster centres randomly

REPEAT assign data points to the cluster with nearest centre recalculate cluster centroid based on its constituent data points ACS = average cluster centre shift from the previous iteration I := I+1 UNTIL (I=I_MAX) OR (ACS<ACS_Th)

ISODATA

ISODATA (Iterative Self Organising Data) is an iterative algorithm that performs unsupervised classification by a series of merging and splitting operations on data clusters. Unlike k-means, the number of resulting clusters or classes is not known a priori.


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Algorithm 2. Pseudocode for ISODATA clustering. Parameters: N0 – initial number of clusters, SD_Th - threshold on the standard deviation within a cluster, CD_Th - threshold on the cluster centre distance, M_MAX - maximum number of merges per iteration, I_MAX - maximum number of iterations, ACD_Th - threshold on the average cluster centre distance, ACCD_Th - threshold on the average change in cluster centre distance (convergence threshold)

I := 0 place N0 random cluster centres and assigning each pixel to the nearest cluster

REPEAT split clusters with standard deviation greater than SD_Th merge a maximum of M_MAX clusters with centre distance smaller than CD_Th recomputecentre and standard deviations for the newly formed clusters ACD = the average cluster centre distance ACCD = the average change in cluster centre distance from previous iteration I = I+1 UNTIL (I=I_MAX) OR (ACD<ACD_Th) OR (ACCD<ACCD_Th)

ArcGIS IsoCluster

Although it claims to be an implementation of ISODATA, the ArcGIS tool implements k-means clustering followed by some post processing filtering. ArcGIS uses the term „migrating means technique” to describe this unsupervised clustering method. At the end of the iterative process, when the clusters have reached a stable state, their number is reduced by eliminating those consisting in few pixels and by merging those with similar statistical properties.

The IsoCluster tool allows three parameters: the initial number of classes, the minimum pixels in a class and the sampling interval. LANDSAT Imagery

The LANDSAT program is the longest running program for acquiring satellite imagery of the Earth. The first satellite was launched in 1972 and has since launched 7 more with the latest in 2013, providing a data continuity of over 40 years. The present study is using imagery acquired by the LANDSAT 7 satellite. The spatial platform is equipped with sensors that swipe the Earth surface with a swath of 183 km and acquire data on eight different spectrum bands (Table 1)

In terms of temporal resolution, the capture periodicity for a single scene varies with geographic location and priority, but for the USA territory, it is 16 days.

Table 1.The eight bands of LANDSAT 7. NIR = near infrared, SWIR = short wave infrared, TIR = thermal infrared, PAN = panchromatic

Band # Designation Wavelength (µm) Resolution (m) 1 Blue 0.45-0.52 30 2 Green 0.52-0.60 30 3 Red 0.63-0.69 30 4 NIR 0.77-0.90 30 5 SWIR 1.55-1.75 30 6 TIR 10.40-12.50 60 (30) 7 SWIR 2.09-2.35 30 8 PAN 0.52-0.90 15

Kappa Statistic Cohen's kappa coefficient (more widely known as kappa statistic) represents a common measure

for assessing the inter-rater agreement for categorical data. It was first introduced by Cohen (1960) and it is used in many scientifically fields, including land cover image classification (Stehman, 1997).


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Kappa statistic intends to give a quantitative measure of the magnitude of agreement between two or more raters. It is based on how much agreement is occurring (observed agreement) compared to how much agreement would be expected due to chance alone (expected agreement). It is calculated as: ,where is the proportion of times the raters agree (observed agreement) and P(E) is the proportion of times the raters are expected to agree by chance alone Considering the above formula, kappa can range from 0 to 1, with 0 corresponding to agreement due only to chance and 1 to complete agreement. Viera and Garrett (2005) provide a good overview of kappa statistic.

METHODS Data The multispectral data used in this study was collected by LANDSAT 7 on October 6, 1999

above an area around Houston, Texas. This area was chosen because it features a balanced land variation, with a significant proportion of urban and residential areas, as well as forests, agriculture and a large body of water. The exact location of the study area is given in table 2. The Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) package consists of nine images (including two different 30m resolution interpolations for the TIR band) out of which only eight were used for this study. The PAN image was excluded to maintain a consistent resolution and to ease pixel matching.

Table 2.Geographic coordinates of the four image corners

Corner Latitude Longitude Upper-left 31.26051 -96.09261

Upper-right 31.29639 -93.58842 Lower-left 29.32488 -96.03241

Lower-right 29.35811 -93.57694

Classification By visually inspecting the image we decided to perform the classifications in six classes:

urban, residential, soil, vegetation, forest and water. An objective assessment requires that both ArcGIS and ERDAR tools use the same training set for the supervised classification. For this purpose, more than 50 polygons enclosing regions of known nature have been created in ArcGIS. The shapefile was saved and converted to areas of interest (AOI) for the ERDAS IMAGINE software. The strategy for unsupervised classification is to create a large number of subclasses that may be merged subsequently to form the six established classes.

ArcGIS Methodology ArcGIS provides two tools for the supervised and unsupervised classification respectively:

Maximum Likelihood and IsoCluster. We used the default parameters for both and set the initial number of clusters to 30 for IsoCluster.

IsoCluster produced 18 classes. Each has been inspected by overlapping the RGB composite image as well as relevant separate bands to decide what classes should be merged to finally obtain the six established classes. Nine of the initial classes were eliminated either because they represented deficient band overlap on the edge of the image or because they had few pixel members. The remaining number of classes was distributed so that urban, residential and vegetation had a one-to-one correspondence, forest and water were each formed be merging three classes, and soil had no correspondence.

ERDAS IMAGINE Methodology ERDAS IMAGINE features two unsupervised classification methods: k-means clustering

and ISODATA, and six supervised classification methods: Maximum likelihood, Mahalanobis Distance, Minimum Distance, Spectral Angle Mapper and Spectral Correlation Mapper.


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While the default parameterization was used for supervised classification, the following parameters and processing was needed for the unsupervised classification. For k-means 30 cluster centers were set and for ISODATA the interval from 10 to 40. In addition, ISODATA used the following parameters (see background section for parameter meaning):SD_Th = 5, CD_Th = 4, M_MAX = 10, I_MAX =100 and ACCD_Th = 0.95.

Out of 30 classes produced by k-means: two were disqualified, three were merged into urban, one formed the residential, one formed the soil, five were merged into vegetation, 17 were merged to form the forest, and finally one corresponded to water.

ISODATA produced 40 subclasses that were grouped as follows: 26 disqualified, two urban, one residential, four soil, two vegetation, three forest, two water.

Assessment Due tothe lack of reliable synchronic reference land cover map for the particular area, the

classified images were initially visually inspected, with a focus oncertain critical regions. We discussed the observations and attempted to explain particularities of each classification by the underlying algorithm and band characteristics of the LANDSAT 7 images. To formally assess the difference between every pair of classified images, kappa statistic was used for a total of 36 pairs. Each algorithm was considered a rater and each pair had a corresponding kappa statistic. The information processing and kappa coefficient was calculated using package raster (Hijmans, 2014) and package irr (Gamer et al., 2012) on R statistical platform (R Core Team, 2013).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION General Classification Quality ArcGIS IsoCluster IsoCluster classification (figure 3) performed well in reciprocal separation of residential

and urban areas, in the sense that few urban areas were classified as residential and vice versa. On the downside, one of the initially produced classes contained pixels in both residential areas and the majority of Lake Anahuac. Indeed Lake Anahuac has a distinct spectral signature in the visible spectrum (i.e. grey) due to its impurity. Even though the NIR band clearly distinguishes this body of water, IsoCluster was not able to classify it together with other bodies of water. The reason behind this is the relative intensity of the bands. The RGB bands are all well contrasted and they will have a more decisive influence on the unsupervised classification. The biggest shortcoming with this method is its inability to identify any of the soil pixels. Bare soil parcels and recently deforested land were incorrectly classified as urban. Forest and vegetation regions are often interspersed. This may be due to post classification filtering where smaller classes have been merged with vegetation class instead of forest. Conversely, some of the vegetation and planted agricultural land was classified as residential.

ArcGIS Maximum Likelihood Compared to IsoCluster, the ArcGIS implementation of Maximum Likelihood (figure 4)

did better in classifying the urban area with the exception of including waterland and some soil parcels that were especially bright in the visible spectrum. Interestingly, for some soil parcels, only the more humid regions were confused with urban area. The vegetation and forest areas were in general compact with only few interspersed regions. It did classify most of the bare soil parcels with the exception of those with high reflectance in the visible spectrum and the more humid ones. While large bodies of water were well delineated, rivers and small lakes were poorly classified. Vegetation washighly interspersed with soil pixels. The residential areas tookover some of the less vigorous forested land. This is explained by the training samples,withresidential areas beingoften rich in roadside trees. For this reason, the signature for the residential area featured high variability and was not normally distributed. Since it featured both buildings and trees, it was probably a bimodal distribution, in violation of Maximum Likelihood’s primary assumption.


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Figure 3.Land cover map produced by ArcGIS IsoCluster classifier

Figure 4. Land cover map produced by ArcGIS maximum likelihood classifier

ERDAS IMAGINE k-means K-means clustering (figure 5) did an overall good segmentation. The algorithm performed

especially well in classifying the water, even thin river lines, small lakes and pools. In regards to urban/residential delineation, the urban area is a bit too extensive, taking over regions that should be classified as residential. A few soil parcels as well as sandy river banks and ocean shore were also classified as urban. The downtown area where tall buildings shadow adjacent areas was erroneously classified as water contoured with forest pixels. Since both shadow and water has a low intensity response on all reflected spectra it was included in the same cluster. It may be extrapolated as a general disadvantage for unsupervised classification where the user cannot explicitly indicate a region’s class.

ERDAS IMAGINE ISODATA ISODATA clustering (figure 6) seemedto be the most appropriate algorithm for this

particular data set, yielding the best classification overall. The few errors that it introduced were by classifying a few grasslands and cultivated land as residential, and the downtown as water. In


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addition, a high number of soil patches werepresent in the urban and residential areas. It is unlikely that they all represent construction and development sites.

Figure 5. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE k-means classifier

Figure 6. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE ISODATA classifier

ERDAS IMAGINE Maximum Likelihood As expected (figure 7), it performed nearly the same with the similar tool in ArcGIS.

Despite the deterministic nature of maximum likelihood classification, some differences at the pixel level were observed.

ERDAS IMAGINE Mahalanobis Distance Here (figure 8), the downtown area wascorrectly classified as urban but this may be due to the fact

that small water bodies are classified as urban as well. Water in general is poorly delineated and often heavily intruded by the urban class. It is safe to say that Mahalanobis Distance shares most of the Maximum Likelihood shortcomings with the tendency to exaggerate them. Forest has little commission but has some significant omission, in general being intruded by the residential class. Soil is well classified.


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Figure 7. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE maximum likelihood classifier

Figure 8. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE Mahalanobis distance classifier

ERDAS IMAGINE Minimum Distance With MD classifier (figure 9) water is very well contoured and forest is decently classified. On

the downside, a large proportion of soil parcels wereclassified as urban and a large portion of vegetation wereclassified as residential. There weresoil pixels on urban areas and vice versa. It seemedthat Minimum Distance performs especially well in differentiating those pixels with high contrast in a single band even when the rest of the bands hold values that are close to a certain class signature. Inherently, Euclidian distance will have higher magnitude when measured along a single axis. Water for instance, has a stark contrast in the NIR band, making it easy to extract its afferent pixels.

ERDAS IMAGINE Spectral Angle Mapper With SAM classifier (figure 10), forest is particularly well classified, and water too. Similar

to the MD classifier, SAM classifies a large portion of soil and waterland as residential. The soil regions are further affected by scattered vegetation pixels. High intensity soil regions are classified as urban. Similarly, shore sand is wrongfully classified as urban where a soil classification would have been more appropriate. Nevertheless both soil and vegetation classifications are improved compared to MD.


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Figure 9. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE minimum distance classifier

Figure 10. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE Spectral Angle Mapper classifier

Figure 11. Land cover map produced by ERDAS IMAGINE Spectral Correlation Mapper classifier


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ERDAS IMAGINE Spectral Correlation Mapper Although Spectral Correlation Mapper has been proposed as an improvement to SAM, it

performed slightly worse on this particular dataset (figure 11). There were an increased proportion of forest pixels in residential areas. In the same time the forest is significantly scattered with vegetation pixels. The residential area intruded more of the deforested land. The soil regions were less classified as urban but instead much more residential areas intruded. The water was slightly better delineated with the cost of more buildings shaded areas being classified as water. An improvement from SAM could be observed in the urban classification which is more compact.

Figure 12. Side by side comparison of the classification results on three representative regions. (a) RGB band composite,

(b) ArcGIS IsoCluster, (c) ArcGIS Maximum Likelihood, (d) ERDAS ISODATA, (e) ERDAS K-means


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Figure 13. Side by side comparison of the classification results on three representative regions. (f) ERDAS

Mahalanobis Distance, (g) ERDAS Minimum Distance, (h) ERDAS Maximum Likelihood, (i) ERDAS Spectral Angle Mapper, (j) ERDAS Spectral Correlation Mapper

Kappa coefficient agreement evaluation Table 1 shows that all classification algorithms do not provide completlydifferent results,

with all kappa values being higher 0.6. All the kappa coefficients were statistically significant, with a p-value smaller than 0.05, but this was expected as the sample size was very large with n being the total number of pixels. However, there were differences in the distribution of the kappa


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coefficients and patterns could be identified. The highest agreement, with a kappa value of 0.993, is between maximum likelihood algorithm for ArcGIS and ERDAS.This was expected, as both methods use the same process in assigning pixel to classes.

Two unsupervised algorithms, ERDAS K-means and ISODATA also have a high degree of similarity. This can be explained by the fact that both methods iteratively converge to solutions that minimize the total spectral distance between pixels and their cluster center. While K-means explicitly follow this objective by migrating the cluster centers to positions recalculated as centroids, ISODATA implicitly follows the same strategy with the merge/split operations. While, splitting a cluster will greatly reduce the total distance since it is performed on clusters that feature large variation, a merge operation will not significantly increase the total distance as it operates on clusters with small inter-centroid distance.

A high agreement can be observed among the triplet MD, SAM and SCM as the Euclidian distance to a training set centroid is correlated to the spectral angle.The correlation is heightened when the training sets are distributed with little variance around a certain spectral angle but span wide ranges of each band.

ERDASMahalanobis Distance shows more similarity with the maximum likelihood classifiers. This can be due to the fact that both methods assume a normal distribution of the pixels in the class.

The ArGIS ISOCLUSTER method has lower agreements with all the other methods including the expectedly similar ISODATA, mainly because it was not able to identify a distinct soil class.

Unexpectedly, the ERDAS Mahalanobis Distance has a kappa value of only 0.637 when compared with ERDAS Minimum Distance, showing that by choosing the simple Euclidean distance does not yield the same results as when more general distances are applied.

Table 3. Kappa statistic comparison

Method IC ML(A) ID KM MhD ML(E) MD SAM SCM IC - 0.731 0.676 0.681 0.674 0.729 0.675 0.728 0.67 ML(A) 0.731 - 0.666 0.668 0.841 0.993 0.698 0.754 0.732 ID 0.676 0.666 - 0.907 0.639 0.667 0.741 0.778 0.73 KM 0.681 0.668 0.907 - 0.637 0.669 0.726 0.757 0.706 MhD 0.674 0.841 0.639 0.637 - 0.843 0.637 0.661 0.662 ML(E) 0.729 0.993 0.667 0.669 0.843 - 0.698 0.754 0.732 MD 0.675 0.698 0.741 0.726 0.637 0.698 - 0.861 0.819 SAM 0.728 0.754 0.778 0.757 0.661 0.754 0.861 - 0.876 SCM 0.67 0.732 0.73 0.706 0.662 0.732 0.819 0.876 -

CONCLUSION We conclude the study with several remarks regarding the classification algorithms. The

choice of classification algorithm affects has a strong effect on the results and one must make an informed decision when selecting the method. The most problematic situations have been identified as follows:

1. The Houston city downtown was often classified as water due to the shadowed areas. 2. Urban/residential/forest balance. Since residential areas consist of both buildings and

trees it is challenging to separate the three classes. 3. Soil-urban confusion. Due to similar reflectance (in the majority of bands) of bare soil,

asphalt and concrete, soil was often classified as urban or residential. 4. Soil-vegetation similarity. Soil is rarely completely vegetation free, therefore it will

always be a challenge to decide whether a land parcel is cultivated or not. 5. Some algorithms did not differentiate forest fromvegetation well enough. This was

expected since they both have a similarly strong response on the green and NIR bands.


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6. Shallow water, impure water, thin river lines and small lakes are sometimes hard to classify. The most frequent error classifies them as urban and/orresidential.

None of the nine classification algorithms were able to avoid all of the above mentioned problems. Some algorithms were able to overcome a subset of these difficulties, others overcame a different subset and a few produced less errors overall. It is necessary to combine the solution of several algorithms in order to produce a good segmentation and one must understand how a particular classification method performs with respect to the desired goal. For this particular dataset, ERDAS ISODATA algorithm produced the most accurate classification. Not only it produces an overall good classification, but the few present errors may be easily rectified. These errors were located in the urban and residential areas. One error consistedin the downtown area being classified as water and another one consistedin the frequency of soil patches in the populated areas. This can be rectified by replacing the misclassified areas with the corresponding results produced by another algorithm. For this particular dataset, a good alternative for downtown Houston is the Mahalanobis distance classifier, and for the Soil, Maximum Likelihood.

The kappa coefficient assessment revealed relatively good agreement among all methods. Using kappa coefficints, we identified pairs and groups of methods withhigh agreements that in some instances could be explained by the logic of the underlying algorithms.

REFERENCES de Carvalho Jr. O. A., Meneses P. R., (2000), Spectral Correlation Mapper (SCM): An Improvement on the Spectral Angle

Mapper (SAM), AVIRIS Proceedings 2000. Cohen J. (1960), A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales, Educational and Psychological Measurement, volume 20, p. 37 - 46. Fu A., Sun G., Guo Z., Wang D. (2010), Forest Cover Classification With MODIS Images in Northeastern Asia, IEEE

Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, volume 3, p. 178 – 189. Gamer M., Lemon J., Fellows I., Singh P. (2012), Various Coefficients of Interrater Reliability and Agreement, retrieved

from http://cran.r-project.org/package=irr Goward S.N., Masek J. G., Williams D. L., Irons J. R., Thompson R. (2001), The Landsat 7 mission: Terrestrial research

and applications for the 21st century, Remote Sensing of Environment , volume 78, p. 3 – 12. Lu D., Weng Q. (2006), Use of impervious surface in urban land-use classification, Remote Sensing of Environment,

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Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, p. 281 - 297. Manandhar R., Odeh I.O.A., Ancev T. (2009), Improving the Accuracy of Land Use and Land Cover Classification of

Landsat Data Using Post-Classification Enhancement, Remote Sensing, volume 1, p. 330 - 344. Pielke R A. (2005), Land Use and Climate Change Science, Science, volume 310, p. 1625 - 1626. de Pinho C. M. D., Fonseca L. M. G., Korting T. S., de Almeida C. M., Kux H. J. H. (2012), Land-cover classification of

an intra-urban environment using high-resolution images and object-based image analysis, International Journal of Remote Sensing, volume 33, p. 5973 - 5995.

R Core Team, (2013), R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, retrieved from http://www.r-project.org

Stehman S. V. (1997), Selecting and interpreting measures of thematic classification accuracy, Remote Sensing of Environment, volume 62, p. 77-89.

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Vannier C., Vasseur C., Hubert-Moy L., Baudry J. (2011), Multiscale ecological assessment of remote sensing images, Landscape Ecology, Springer Netherlands, volume 26, p. 1053 – 1069.

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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online August 01, 2014 August 29, 2014 September 30, 2014

AAnnaalleellee UUnniivveerrssiittăăţţiiii ddiinn OOrraaddeeaa,, SSeerriiaa GGeeooggrraaffiiee Year XXXXIIVV, no. 22//22001144 (December), pp. 115588--116655 ISSN 11222211--11227733, E-ISSN 22006655--33440099 Article no. 224422110088--666655


SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA

IIuulliiaannaa CCllaauuddiiaa BBAAIIAASS University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC,

1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

HHoorriiaa CCAARRȚȚIIȘȘ

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

ȘȘtteeffaann BBAAIIAASS

University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The efficiency of the educational process within an academic institution is given by the dynamic interaction between teachers and students. Each of the two components of the educational process relate with each other and interact in a real and efficient way. The professor shares knowledge depending on the particularities of the educational subjects in order to shape specialists that are capable of contributing to the development of the society. The students relate to the teachers intentions, to the clearly expressed requirements and they receive process and render the conveyed knowledge in a personal way. Therefore, these subjects are those that give an overview of the educational process developed within each university. In this regard, the present study focuses its attention on a systematic analysis of the two dynamic components of the educational process at the University of Oradea, thus allowing a better understanding of the functioning of the educational process conducted in this institution. Key words: educational process, systemic analysis, teachers, students

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Universities are complex and diverse institutions offering a wide range of services. Users

and providers of such services interact with each other and with the society in a unique way. Consequently, the value of universities for our economy and society is tangible as it can be quantified using a variety of conventional measures but it is also intangible as it can increase from a cultural, historical point of view etc. Universities are large institutions composed of many people but they also serve many people and they are directly and indirectly responsible for the economic prosperity of a region or country (Abreu et al, 2008; Swenson, 2012). Briefly, higher education has an important role in the economy of a country. Its contribution to economic prosperity through


Systemic analysis of the dynamic components of the educational process from the …

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innovation and knowledge-sharing is considered vital for the economic growth and development. Worldwide, governments support the goals of any university: the development of new ideas, products and services, research, better education of citizens (Reichert, 2006; Kelly et al., 2009).

Universities enhance education, providing benefits to individuals and society. Their contribution to the local economy is represented by the satisfaction of the educational needs as students acquire the skills and abilities necessary to become more productive as a result of their education. Therefore, the importance of higher education in economics can be seen in the level of education of individuals and in the employment rate. The benefits of the education given in universities go far beyond the actual earnings of each individual as it also provides a workforce with a higher educational level, it helps young graduates to find a place in society, it eventually helps to decrease crime and increase productivity etc. (Bruner, 1999; Hoffman & Hill, 2009; Herman et al., 2012; Baias, 2012). An important element that determines the competitiveness of the Romanian economy is the level of preparation of the workforce. In this regard, teachers have an important role in training students in a formal education environment and with appropriate teaching technology. All these elements form the educational process in which the teachers and the students constitute the dynamic part. The systemic analysis of the two components (teachers and students) allows us to have an understanding of these components, of the functionality of the process and of the causes that induce certain distortions in their evolution etc. Thus, the present study analyzed between 2008 - 2013 the teachers and students from the three cycles of the University of Oradea in terms of: number, gender, age and area of origin.

METHODOLOGY This study is based on results obtained using geographical research methods: the method of

bibliographic documentation (Cocean, 2005; Armas, 2006), the statistical method (Khan, 1998; Petrea, 2005; Gomez & Jones, 2010;) used for processing data statistics on the number of teachers and students, on the structure of teachers and students in terms of gender, age and area of origin between 2008-2013; the analysis method - the obtained data on the two dynamic components of the educational process was included in the profile analysis (Cocean, 2005, Clifford et al., 2010), the mapping method – transforming the obtained information in cartographic representations using the GIS software (Petrea, 2005; Cope & Sarah; Elwood, 2009) and the synthesis method that resulted in drawing conclusions regarding teachers and students during the above mentioned period.

TEACHERS AND STUDENTS - THE DYNAMIC COMPONENTS OF THE

EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The teaching activity is an important component in the functioning of a university. This

sums up all forms of action aimed at the preparation of students as specialists in every field required by a continuously growing society. The quality of the training offered by each professor, his professional competence, his dedication towards students, etc., define the prestige of the university as an institution (Munteanu & Munteanu, 2004). The second part of the educational process of a university is represented by students. The relations between the two components are generally described by communication, the exchange of information between the transmitter (professor) and receiver (student) being frequent, aiming at providing the information needed for the result required by the society - specialists in various fields. Between 2008 and 2013 we conducted a systemic analysis of teachers and students enrolled in the three cycles of the University of Oradea, watching closely the following indicators: number, gender, age and area of origin. This analysis was aimed at knowing the two components of the educational process within the universities, the functionality of the educational process and the causes of the distortions in their development. During this time, the structure of teachers and students experienced a constant change as their number continued to decrease due to the restrictive factors (figures 1, 2): the hiring freeze in public companies (Government Emergency Ordinance no. 34/2009), the low number of students, the conditions imposed by the National Council for the Attestation of Academic Titles,

Iuliana Claudia BAIAS, Horia CARŢIȘ, Ștefan BAIAS

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University Diplomas and Certificates to reach the didactic hierarchy etc. (in the case of teachers), the economic crisis, the reorganization of the higher education system under the Bologna process (the reduction of scholarships), the decreased birth rate at a national level etc., (in the case of students).

1291

1287

1228

1150

1130

1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350

2008/2009

2009/2010

2010/2011

2011/2012

2012/2013

Evolution of the number of professors

Figure 1. Evolution of the number of teachers at the University of Oradea, between 2008 - 2013

(Data source: Human Resources Department, University of Oradea)

Figure 2. Evolution of the number of students enrolled in the three cycles at the University of Oradea 2008 - 2013

(Data source: https://uniweb.uoradea.ro) The analysis of the distribution of teachers and students by gender reveals that in the

University of Oradea women predominate (51% female teachers, 52% female students) (figures 3, 4). In what concerns the structure of teachers by age groups, we can observe that from the age

group 25-29 years to the age group 50-54 years women predominate, whereas in the 55-59 years age group the male teachers predominate (figure 5).


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Figure 3. Percentage of the teachers from the University of Oradea by gender in the academic year 2010 - 2011


Figure 4. Percentage of the undergraduate, master students and phd students by gender in 2008 - 2013

(Data source: https://uniweb.uoradea.ro)

Figure 5. The age pyramid for teachers in the academic year 2010 - 2011



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Figure 6. The area of origin of the teaching staff of the University of Oradea,

the 2010 - 2011 academic year

Figure 7. The area of origin of students of the University of Oradea, between 2008 - 2013

Most of the students enrolled in undergraduate academic studies have the age equivalent to the higher education level, ranging in the age group 18-24 years (70% of all students). Most students registered for master’s degree studies are aged between 22 and 24 years, most of them being enrolled in the 2009-2010 academic year (2697-graduate students) due to the large number of graduates from the undergraduate studies. In what concerns the doctoral studies, most of the


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doctoral students are over the age of 30 years. The University of Oradea has a wide range of recruitment for both teachers and students. Overall, the majority of teachers and students come from the North-Western region of the country (figures 6, 7, 8, 9), especially from the Bihor County. Most teachers come from the North-Western Region (Maramureș, Sălaj, Cluj and Bihor), București-Ilfov, Western Region (Arad, Timiș, Hunedoara) and Central Region (Alba, Covasna, Mureș).

Figure 8. The area of origin of master students of the University of Oradea, between 2008 - 2013

Figure 9. The area of origin of PhD students of University of Oradea, between 2008 - 2013


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Though the number of students in undergraduate academic studies has dropped between 2008-2013, their geographical origin continued to expand. Thus in Figure no.7 one can notice that students come from all regions of the country, most of them coming from the North-Western region, Bihor county hovering the first place (12 208 students). This is followed by the following counties: Satu Mare (525 students), Sălaj (489 students), Maramures (245 students), Alba (147 students), Cluj (143 students) and Arad (128 students). From the analysis of statistical data and in figure 8 is noticed that most master-students come from almost all counties of the country, except Dâmboviţa, Călărași și Giurgiu. Bihor county ranks first with 3065 master-students , followed by the counties of Sălaj (118 master-students) and Satu Mare (107 master-students).

Regarding the origin of PhD students it appears that the attraction area of the University of Oradea extends in the counties of North-Western Region (Bihor, Bistriţa-Năsăud, Cluj, Sălaj, Satu–Mare and Maramureş), North-Eastern Region (Suceava), Western Region (Arad, Caraş–Severin, Hunedoara and Timiş), South-Western Region (Dolj, Gorj, Mehedinţi, Olt and Vâlcea), Central Region (Alba, Mureş and Sibiu), Southern Region (Argeş, Dâmboviţa and Prahova), Ilfov Region and South-Eastern Region (Brăila, Constanţa and Vrancea). From the analysis of figure 9 it is showed that most of the PhD students come from North-Western Region, Bihor county standing in first place with 416 PhD students. It is followed by Arad (29 PhD students), Satu Mare (14 PhD students) and Sălaj (11 PhD students).

CONCLUSIONS The teaching activity is an important component in the functioning of a university as it

trains students to be specialists in every field required by a continuously growing society. The quality of the training offered by each professor, his professional competence, his

dedication towards students etc., defines the prestige of the university. In order to have an overview of the educational process that takes place within these institutions we conducted a systemic analysis of two dynamic components, teachers and students between 2008 and 2013, watching the following indicators: number, gender, age and area of origin.

The obtained results reveal a constant decrease in the number of teachers and students during the above mentioned period due to the following factors: the economic crisis, the reorganization of the higher education system, the hiring freeze in public companies, etc. The analysis also revealed that women predominate (51% female teachers and 52% female students). Moreover, most female teachers are in the age group 35-39 years while most students enrolled in undergraduate academic studies fall in the age group 18-24 years. The graduate students are aged between 22 and 24 years while the PhD students are aged over 30 years. Another aspect revealed is that the majority of the teachers and students come from the North-Western region of the country, especially from the Bihor County.

REFERENCES Abreu M., Grinevich V., Hughes A., Kitson M., Ternouth P. (2008), Universities, Business and Knowledge Exchange,

Council for Industry and Higher Education, and Centre for Business Research, Great Britain. Armaș Iuliana (2006), Teorie și metodologie geografică, Editura Fundației România de Mâine, București. Baias, Iuliana, Claudia, (2012), Some aspects of scientific function of the university of Oradea between 2006 and 2010, în

Analele Universităţii din Oradea, year XXII, no. 1/2012 (June), p. 128 – 136, Oradea; Bruner J. S. (1999), The process of education, Harvard College, USA. Clifford N., French S., Valentine G. (2010), Key methods in Geography, Second Edition, Publisher SAGE Publications

Ltd., London. Cocean P. (2005), Geografie Regională, Editura Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca. Cope M., Elwood Sarah (2009), Qualitative GIS: a mixed method approach, SAGE Publications Ltd, Londra. Gomez B., Jones J. P. (2010), Research methods in geography, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., USA. Herman G.V., Grama V., Morar C., Baias Iuliana Claudia, Stupariu M.I. (2012), The cross-border cooperation promoted by universities. Case study: The University of Oradea – Departament of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning, în Revista Română de Geografie Politică, year XIV, no. 1, p. 120-131, Oradea;


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Hoffman D., Hill K. (2009), The contribuition of universities to regional economies, Arizona State University Press. Kelly Ursula, McLelan D., McNicoll I. (2009), The impact of universities on the Uk economy: fourth report, Universities

UK, SUA. Khan N. (1998), Quantitative methods in geographical research, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. McKenzie R. B. (1979), The political economy in the educational process, Martinus Nijhoff Publishing, USA. Munteanu I., Munteanu Rodica (2004), Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara, Editura Universitatea de Vest, Timişoara. Petrea D. (2005), Obiect, metodă şi cunoaştere geografică, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Reichert S. (2006), The rise of knowledge regions: emerging opportunities and challenges for universities, EUA

Publications, Belgium. Swenson D. (2012), Measuring university contributions to regional economies: a discussion of guidelines for enhancing

credibility, Minneapolis, Minnesota. *** Data from the archive of Human Resources Department, University of Oradea. *** Government Emergency Ordinance no. 34/2009. https://uniweb.uoradea.ro (accesed on 12.05.2013; 06.02.2014)

Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online September 03, 2014 Octomber 29, 2014 November 14, 2014




GGeeoorrggee--BBooggddaann TTOOFFAANN „Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, Cluj-Napoca,

5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

AAddrriiaann NNIIŢŢĂĂ „Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, Gheorgheni Branch, Romania,


Ciprian NIMARĂ University of Petroşani, Department of Management, Environmental Engineering and Geology

Petroşani, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This study aims to analyze the religious structure of the population in three counties of the geographical-historical province of Transylvania: Harghita, Covasna and Mureş census registered on October 20, 2011, data on this issue, the source is National Institute of Statistics. Regarding to religious structure in the mentioned area, the information is available for 1,031,652 people (of a total of 1,071,890 inhabitants), the majority being Orthodox cult followers (35.11%), followed by Roman Catholic (322,932 people, 31.30%), Protestants (242,680 people, 23.52%), Unitarian (41,905 people, 4.06%), Pentecostal (14,656 people, 1.42%), Greek Catholic (11,834 persons, 1.14%), Seventh-Day Adventists (10,346 people, 1.00%) and a group of other religions, people without religion with 2,167 people each (0.21%) and information unavailable (40,238 persons, 3.75 %). Key words: 2011 Census, Confession, Orthodox, Roman-Catholic, Reformed.

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION As for the national structure, the Census of 20th October 2011, registration was based on

freedom of religion statements of persons enumerated, but the final results of the census for being a complete collection, was used a method for indirect administrative sources, and the use of statistical methods for apportioning records. Thus, in census data, the final indicator appears unavailable information that has no relevance because it doesn’t provide anything about the census aim, which led to the most significant shortcomings in terms of percentage for representative religions (Pop et al., 2014).

So, in the confessional structure of the population of the three counties (Harghita, Covasna and Mureş), from a total of 1,071,890 inhabitants a number of 40,238 persons whose religious orientation is unavailable. Following the information shown above, the religious structure of the


The Confessional Structure of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş Counties, in 2011

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population in the observation is based on the total number of people declared and not the total number of resident population. This component of structure follows the same classical line of scientific approach, with detailed analysis of the 23 positions evidenced by absolute and relative to the census, from the Orthodox religion to Armenian one, further being mentioned the following categories: other religions, free of religion and atheists. Also, from the beginning we should mention that in the case of confessions made to Census 2011, unlike 2002, there were some changes, namely the recording of confessions in November as the Jehovah's Witnesses, Serb Orthodox religion, the Armenian and the indicator Unavailable information.

WORK METHODOLOGY Following Table 13, conducted by the National Institute of Statistics on stable population

by religion at counties, cities, towns and villages, the census conducted on 20th October 2011, identified 23 positions, clearly marked from 1-23, starting from stable population and ending with information not available. For an analysis as synthetic on the issue under consideration, the group proceeded to the 22 positions as follows: the first six denominations in terms of numbers (Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Unitarian, Pentecostal and Greek Catholic) showing each entity, after these there are Another category and atheist, which includes 15 denominations (Baptist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Muslim, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Evangelic religion, Christian of Old Rite, Evangelical Lutheran, Serb Orthodox, Evangelical, Evangelical of Augustan Confession, Mosaic, Armenian, other religion, Free of religion and Atheists).

The action of getting the basic characteristics of the population in this area is motivated by the fact that under communism there were impediments in addressing anuminte religious structure, since it was not recorded in censuses before 1990 note in this regard without proceeding to a description too detailed some of the studies of Cluj Geographic School, on ethnicity, religion and electoral behavior in Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș (Ilieș, 1998; Creţan, 1999, 2006; Bodocan, 2001) and a series of studies of national and religious structure of the population works made for censuses conducted in 1992, 2002 and 2011 (see references), by the authors: Pop, 1991; Pop & Bodocan, 1995; Pop, 2004, 2007; Şeer, 2004; Niţă, 2007; Lăcătuşu, 2008; Cocean et al., 2013; Tofan, 2013; Pop et al., 2014; Mara, 2014; Tofan, 2014.

GENERAL RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION FROM HARGHITA, COVASNA AND MUREŞ COUNTIES

The population census of 2011, the three counties had a total population of 1,071,890 stable inhabitants, with 57,632 (5.10%) were less than in 2002 (1,129,522 inhabitants), but in terms of people who declared their religion, in 2011 there is a much lower total of 1,031,652 people.

Consequently, the decrease in the number of people, (also national), there were relatively significant changes in the existing confessions in the area under investigation, so that 9 of them was a decrease in the frequency in 2011 compared to 2002, the most significant occurring in the Orthodox confession (from 35.63% to 35.11%, with 40,217 people less) and the category of other religions (1.02% and 0.21% with 9,366 people less) in the same downward trend enrolling and Reformed confessions (from 24.13% to 23.52% during the nine years), Greek Catholic (1.23% and 1.14%), Unitarian (4.18% and 4.06%), Evangelical Lutheran Church (0.22% and 0.16%), Evangelical Augustan Confession (0.08% and 0.06%), Mosaic (0.01% and 0.00%) and free of reliogion (0.25% and 0.21%). Eight of the existing confessions were increases in frequency between the two censuses taken in the analysis here fits Roman Catholic adherents (30.86% and 31.30%), Pentecostal (0.92% and 1.42 %), Baptists (0.23% and 0.30%), Seventh (0.83% and 1.00%), Muslims (0.01% and 0.02%), Christian Evangelists (0.11% and 0.13%), Evangelical (0.03% and 0.10%) and atheists (0.03% and 0.06%), and if the Christians old rite, the percentage considered to remain unchanged, being 0.01%. Religious structure of Harghita county in 2011 was declared by 302,144 people (310,867 resident population), this showed as follows: 66.41% Roman Catholic (200,663) 12.46% Orthodox (37,670) Reformed 12.16% (36,760) 6.95% Unitarian

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(21,023) 0.60% Jehovah's Witnesses (1,724), 0.26% Baptist (811), the category of other religions or cults, people without religion, atheists and those undeclared being 1.20% (Pentecostal, Greek Catholic, Adventist, Muslim, Evangelical, Armenian, Jewish, etc.) and 8,723 individuals included in the indicator information not available.

Table 1. General religious structure of the population in Harghita, Covasna and Mures Counties, censuses of 2002 and 2011

(Data source: 2002 & 2011 Censuses)

Confessions 2002 % 2011 %

1 Total resident population 1129522 100,00 1031652 100,00

2 Orthodox 402499 35.63 362282 35.11

3 Roman-Catholic 348656 30.86 322932 31.30

4 Reformed 272627 24.13 242680 23.52

5 Pentecostal 10481 0.92 14656 1.42

6 Greek-Catholic 13985 1.23 11834 1.14

7 Baptist 2653 0.23 3135 0.30

8 Seventh-Day Adventists 9436 0.83 10346 1.00

9 Muslim 128 0.01 210 0.02

10 Unitarian 47243 4.18 41905 4.06

11 Jehovah’s Witnesses 0.00 0.00 9970 0.96

12 Christian Evangelical 1319 0.11 1410 0.13

13 Christian of Old Rite 142 0.01 107 0.01

14 Lutheran Evangelical 2546 0.22 1713 0.16

15 Serb Orthodox 0.00 0.00 133 0.01

16 Evangelical 386 0.03 1051 0.10

17 Evangelical of Augustan Confession 985 0.08 652 0.06

18 Mosaic 184 0.01 88 0.00

19 Armenian 0.00 0.00 92 0.00

20 Another religion 11533 1.02 2167 0.21

21 Free of religion 2880 0.25 2167 0.21

22 Atheists 348 0.03 638 0.06

23 Unavailable information1 1491 0.13 40238 3.752

Majority religion in six urban settlements of Harghita county is Roman Catholic (Vlăhiţa

89.00%, 84.77% Băile Tuşnad 80.71%, Gheorgheni, 73.57% Miercurea Ciuc 73.00% Borsec 73,00%, Odorheiu Secuiesc 51,12%) in the two cities predominant religion is Orthodox (Topliţa 71.66% and Bălan 52.10%) and in the Cristuru Secuiesc, most followers are the Reformed confession (47.70%). At community level in areas with predominantly Hungarian population is characteristic Roman Catholic (37 locations), followed by the Reformed (7 places) and Unitarian (6 locations), the Orthodox cult being characteristic for Romanian population (8 places).

Religious structure of the population in Covasna County in 2011 was declared by 203,744 people (out of 210,177 inhabitants) and shows that 36.20% are Roman Catholics (73,739), 33.27% of religion Reformed (67,791), 21.35% are Orthodox (43,499) 4.26% Unitarians (8,682), 2.31% Pentecostal (4,720). Percentage between 0.1% -0.6% recorded the following religions: Greek

1 Data from 2002 are named as undeclared religion. 2 Relative value calculated from the total resident population (1,071,890 inhabitants).


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Catholic Church (0.11%, 241 people), Baptist (0.22% and 462), Evangelical Lutheran (0.41% and 851), seventh-day Adventist (0.43% and 875) and Jehovah's Witnesses (0.62% and 1,265 people).

People of other religions than those presented represent 0.50% of the total, and people without religion and atheists is a percentage of 0.40% of the population, which added 6,433 persons included in the indicator information not available.

In three towns, the largest number of followers it has reformed cult (Sfântu Gheorghe, 19,975 people, 37.38% of the total of 53,433 persons declared; Baraolt 4,045 people, 47.82% of the total 8,459 people declared and Covasna, 4,386 people 44.57% of the total 9,840), then follow the Roman Catholic worship, the majority only in Târgu Secuiesc (12,808 people, 71.62% of the total of 17,883 persons declared), while holding the most orthodox followers in Romanian town of Întorsura Buzăului (7,171 persons, 98.70%).

Figure 1. Religious structure in Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties, in 2011

Total declared rural population in terms of religious orientation is 106,864, of which

most belong to the cult of the Roman Catholic parishioners (38,543, 36.07%), the majority in 13 municipalities, followed by the Reformed (35,647, 33.35%), which are predominant in 18 villages, Orthodox (21,559, 20.17%), identified as common mainly in villages, and Pentecostals (4,602, 4.30%), Unitarian (4,040, 3.78%), Greek Catholic (58, 0.05%) and other religions and atheists (2,415, 2.26%).

In Mureş confessional structure of the population in the administrative unit in 2011 was declared by 525,764 people (550,846 inhabitants), ishowing the following situation: 53.46% Orthodox (281,113) 26.27% Reformed (138,129), 9.23% Roman Catholic (48,530), 2.32% Unitarian (12,200), 2.10% Greek Catholic (11,077), 1.78% Pentecostal (9,361) 1.70% seventh-day Adventist (8,979), 1.32% Jehovah's Witnesses (6,981), the category of other religions, people without religion, atheists and those undeclared being 1.78% (9,394 ) (Baptist, Gospel Christian, Evangelical, Muslim, Serbian Orthodox, Jewish, etc.). In eight of urban settlements of Mureş County, the majority religion is Orthodox (Ungheni 82.30%, Sighişoara and Iernut with 76.00%, Târnăveni 75.70%, Sărmaşu 73.65%, Luduş 67.85%, Reghin 63.00%, Târgu Mureş 47.87%) in two cities the predominant religion is reformed (Sângeorgiu de Pădure 54.82% and Miercurea Nirajului 51.40%), in Sovata, the most followers are those of Roman-Catholic religion (48.85%).


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Figure 2. The territorial distribution of the main religions in Covasna County in 2011 (Data source: 2011 Census, author: G. B. Tofan)

Regarding the territorial distribution of rural confessions, it is noted that in romanian areas

the predominant religion is the Orthodox characteristic for 58 communes and settlements and where Hungarians are the majority, the largest number of followers are those of the reformed religion (29 villages), while Roman Catholicism appears dominant only in four municipalities (Eremitu, Hodoşa, Vărgata and Veţca).

ORTHODOX CONFESSION Across the all surveyed unit, this is the most representative religion in 2002 holding 35.65%

(402,499 parishioners, the total population of 1,129,522 inhabitants), after which in 2011 reached a slightly smaller share of 35.11% (362,282 adherents out of a population of 1,031,652 people).


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Compared to the overall recorded frequency Orthodox population values different from one county to another and from one place to another, in the first case the relative (percentage) appears in Mures highest (53.46%) then one in Covasna (21.35%) and lowest in Harghita (12.46%).

Figure 3. The territorial distribution of the main religions in Harghita County, in 2011.

(Data source: 2011 Census, author: G. B. Tofan)

In Mureş County, the Orthodox cult was a slight increase compared to 2002 (from 53.25%, 309,337 people in 2002 to 53.46%, 281,113 people in 2011), with 55.44% (144,770 people) in urban areas and 51.51% (136,343 people) in rural areas, where we notice some common frequencies exceeding the value of 90% (Ruşii Munţi 98.82%, Vătava 98.56%, Tăureni 96.80%, Băla 96.54%, Pogăceaua 95.93%, Crăieşti 94.30%, Iclănzel 92.74%, Chiheru de Jos


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92.17%, Zagăr 92.16%, Saschiz 91.47%, Cozma 91.32%, Solovăstru 90.50% and Viişoara 90.23%), but there are a number of places with very low weights below 1% (Neaua 0.22%, Chibed 0.58% and Hodoşa 0.89%).

At the urban level, the high frequency of this confession is expressed by the fact that four of the cities of Mureş County fall to share above 70% (Sighişoara, Iernut, Târnăveni, Sărmaşu), the difference of over 80% falling just for Ungheni, two cities account for over 60% (Reghin and Luduş) gap below 50% occurred in three Orthodox cities (Târgu Mureş, Sângeorgiu de Pădure and Miercurea Nirajului) the situation shown ending with spacing of less than 10% (Sovata). From an organizational viewpoint, the Orthodox peoples from Mureş County belong to Orthodox Archdiocese of Alba Iulia, part of Metropolitan of Transylvania, who on November 4, 2005 to the proposal of Archbishop Bartolomeu Anania of Cluj belonged to the Metropolitan of Cluj, Alba, Crişana and Maramureş (Metropolitan chair to Cluj-Napoca), returned later (January 21, 2012) to the Metropolitan of Transylvania, with the Metropolitan in Sibiu, comprising 10 deaneries of the five in Mureş county (Târgu Mureş, Luduş, Reghin, Sighişoara and Târnăveni). Since 2011 the archdiocese is led by Eminence Irineu Pop.

The second county by the number of Orthodox parishioners is Covasna (43,499 people) which is 21.35% of the population reported (203,744). Looking at the urban level, we see that this cult is mostly only Întorsura Buzău (7,171 parishioners, 98.70%), while over 30% is spread over specific town Covasna, and the below 20% to the Sfântu Gheorghe town and below 10%, which recorded two cities (Târgu Secuiesc and Baraolt). In rural areas, 20.17% are Orthodox (21,559 people), the frequency of over 90% recorded in some communes, such as Barcani (3,594 persons, 98.68%), Dobârlău (2,063, 98.61 %), Sita Buzăului (4,387, 96.90%) and Valea Mare (968, 93.16%), while 9 are part of the common difference of less than 1% (Brăduţ, Catalina, Cernat, Dalnic, Mereni, Poian, Sânzieni, Turia and Valea Crişului).

In Harghita County, the Orthodox confession, in line with the evolution of the Romanian population has decreased slightly from 2002 (12.46%, 37,670 people), with 16.90% (21,496 people) in urban areas 9.24% (16,174 persons) in rural areas, where the two shared values exceed the threshold of 90% (Subcetate 94.60%, 1,717 parishioners and Bilbor 99.73%, 2,606 (parishioners), the fewest being recorded in Satu Mare, Căpâlniţa, Porumbeni, Vârşag, Sântimbru, Mădăraş, etc. (31 communes, percentage values are below 1%).

Followers of the last two counties analyzed in terms of organizational belong to Orthodox Diocese of Harghita and Covasna, established in 1994 in order "to render religious and ethnic identity of those who have lost it ... and give hope to the frightened ones"(I. Lăcătuşu, V. Lechintan, V. Parsley, 2003), led by Ioan Selejan. The administrative structure of the ward included a total of four deaneries, two in each county (Miercurea Ciuc and Topliţa, Sfântu Gheorghe and Întorsura Buzăului).

ROMAN-CATHOLIC CONFESSION This confession, with 31.30% (322,932 people) of the population of the three counties

examined in 2002 fell to 30.86% (348,656 people) in 2011, has the highest frequency in Harghita county (66, 41%, 200,663 followers), followed by Covasna with 36.19% (73,739 followers) and the lowest in Mureş county (9.23%, 48,530 people). Returning to the first county Harghita, this cult, registered a slightly higher frequency (65.27% in 2002 and 66.41% in 2011), because of a very important segment of the population included in the category of information not available (8,723 people). In urban areas are Roman Catholic confession 74,059 followers (58.25%) of the 127,130 persons reported frequencies of over 80% was recorded in three towns (Gheorgheni, Băile Tuşnad and Vlăhiţa), and the lowest frequency below 20% to Cristuru Secuiesc.

Most followers of this cult live in rural areas (72.33%, 126,604), the most numerous being deployed in Remetea (5,925), Sândominic (5,908), Ditrău (5,312), Joseni (5,303), Zetea (5,302) Lunca de Jos (5,204), Suseni (4,836) Corund (4,644) etc.


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In Covasna and Harghita, the Roman Catholic cult ranks first among the 22 religions registered in 2011 census, accounting for 36.20% (73,739 parishioners) of the population declared (203,744 people). It's only defining for Târgu Secuiesc (71, 62%, 12,808 people), and in rural areas has shares of over 90% in six communes (Estelnic, Ghelniţa, Lemnia, Mereni, Poian and Sânzieni), while the three common frequencies are below 1% (Barcani, Dobârlău and Sita Buzăului).

Regarding Mureş county, by the number of followers, Roman Catholic ranks third (9.23%, 48,530 people, of which 10.95% in urban areas, 28,601 individuals and 7.53% in rural areas, 19,929 people).

In urban areas this confession is prevalent only in Sovata (48.85%, 4,950 people) and four common (Hodoşa 87.00%, 1,077 people; Eremitu 83.08%, 3,143; Veţca 71.60% 620 and Vărgata 30.30%, 562 persons), while not appearing in Tăureni and Pogăceaua.

Roman Catholic religious activity is coordinated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia, led by Eminence György Jakubinyi, one of two Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Romania, with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bucharest, founded by St. Stephen, the first king of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1009 as the Diocese of Transylvania, located in Alba Iulia.

On August 5, 1991 Pope John Paul II raised it to the rank of archbishopric, entering the direct subordination of the Holy See. It operates in 15 deans, of which six are located within three analyzed counties (Târgu Secuiesc, Târgu Mureş, Lower Ciuc, Upper Ciuc, Gheorgheni and Odorhei).

REFORMED CONFESSION (CALVIN) With 242,680 parishioners in 2011, which means 23.52% of the population reported

belonging entire area looked frequency has the following situation: Covasna (33.27% and 67,791 Protestants), Mureş (26.27%, 138,129) and Harghita (12.16%, 36,760).

Analysis of representation at county level, frequency shows the following situation: in Covasna, in three urban settlements belonging, reformation has the largest number of followers: Sfântu Gheorghe (37.38%, 19,975 Protestants, Baraolt (47, 82%, 4,045) and Covasna (44.57%, 4,386 Reformed). Out of the 40 villages, which are 35,647 parishioners in 18 of them was recorded the highest values of reformed confession presence: Moacşa (90.06%, 1,069 people, Reci (89.82%, 2,047) Ghidfalău (2,236, 87.27%), Boroşneu Mare (86.27%, 2,602), Brateş (85.98%, 1,294), Dalnic (85.76%, 813), Bodoc (79,70%, 1,990), Băţani (77.87%, 3,309 people) etc.

In Mureş reformed cult ranks second after the Orthodox in terms of the number of parishioners who but the entire administrative units showed a lower frequency (138,129 persons, 26,27%, in 2011 compared of 157,046 people, 27.00% in 2002). At the urban level is mostly onlyin two urban settlements, where the frequency of over 50% with absolute values exceeding 2700 reformed in Miercurea Nirajului (2,731, 51.40%), and Sângeorgiu de Pădure (54.83%, 2,710 Reformed), but most followers are concentrated in rural areas (29.43%, 77,880 Protestants) in common as well: Neaua (92,87%, 1,237), Chibed (88,80%, 1,528), Bereni (88,71%, 1,053), Sărăţeni (88,33%, 1,400), Ghindari (83,60%, 2,600), Acăţari (81,12%, 3,759), Mădăraş (76,81%, 967), Pănet (71,66%, 4,283) etc, while frequencies below 1% are registered in municipalities like Cozma, Crăieşti, Cucerdea, Vătava (under three parishioners), because the Orthodox cult holds over 90%.

In Harghita, the third cult after the Roman Catholic and Orthodox is Reformed (12.16%, 36,760 people, of which 15.16% in urban areas, 19,281 Protestants and 9.98% in rural areas, 17,479 people). Places where this cult is predominant are: Cristuru Secuiesc (4,462), Praid (4,305), Feliceni (2,011), Mugeni (1,765), Secuieni (1,524), Atid (1,447), Porumbeni (1,422) and Ulieş (821). Adherents of the analyzed counties belong to the Reformed Church of Transylvania, located in Cluj-Napoca, one of the two dioceses of the Reformed Church in Romania, led by the reformed bishop, Kató Béla. From administratively divided into 16 deaneries in the observation unit is stacked following: Baraolt, Sfântu Gheorghe, Târgu Secuiesc, Mureşană Plain, Mureş, Târnăveni, Odorheiu Secuiesc and Gurghiu Valley Reformed Parish.


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Figure 4. The territorial distribution of the main religions in Mureş County, in 2011

(Data source: 2011 Census, author: G. B. Tofan)

PENTECOSTAL CONFESSION It is one of the confessions whose number increased from 10,481 followers (0.92% of the

1,129,522 inhabitants of the three administrative units concerned as study) in 2002 to 14,656 (1.42%) in, 2011. Regarding the presence of the religious situation in the counties, we mention first of all that the highest percentage values recorded in Covasna (2.31% Pentecostal 4,720), followed by Mureş County (1.78%, 9,361), then the contemplated number is reduced to below 600 in Harghita County (0.19%, 575).


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In Covasna county, the urban is characterized by a frequency of less than 1% of Pentecostals followers confession analyzed (Baraolt, 0.73%, Sfântu Gheorghe, 0.08%, Întorsura Buzăului 0.12% etc, but missing in Târgu Secuiesc, most followers are confined to rural areas (4.43%, 4,602), in some communes such as: Belin (49.04%, 1,328 Pentecostals), the only common in the county where the cult is predominantly is Vâlcele (29.01%, 1,225) and Brăduţ (24.03%, 1,099), while in 22 common ethnicity does not appear that any follower.

Pentecostals in Mures County has the highest rise of neo Pentecostals by number of adherents 9,361 (1.78% of the total of 525,764 people declared), most of which 6,564 belong to rural area (2.48%), 32 of the 91 municipalities of the county is characterized by a frequency of less than 1% of Pentecostals followers (Acăţari, Albeşti, Batoş, Brâncoveneşti, Breaza, Ernei, Găneşti, Iclănzel, Lunca Bradului, Nadeş, Sărăţeni, Tăureni, Vătava, Zagăr, etc.) while frequencies above 10% of the confessions are found only in three communes: Bahnea (18.27%), Band (16.96%) and Mica (10.45%). The lowest number of people reported as practicing of Pentecostal cult are recorded in Harghita county (575 persons, 0.19%), of which 54.43% of the total residing in urban areas, most followers being Topliţa (183 adherents, 1.40% of the 13,121 people reported), while the Băile Tuşnad and Vlăhiţa was not recorded any follower. Regarding rural county frequency above 1% is found only in the municipality as Ciucsângeorgiu (1.67%, 79 persons), and in 24 common, the cult is not present.

Christian Pentecostal-Apostolic Church of God of Romania, was considered as a sect since 1910, only in 1950 was recognized as religious by Decree no. 1 203/1950. According to the Charter of organization and operation, this cult has the following parts: the local Church, subsidiary Church, Community (Regional, Ethnic or Territorial), Pentecostal Theological Institute and other educational institutions, and other senior Pension Fund and Aid to Christian God cult -Apostolic Pentecostal from Romania.

GREEK-CATHOLIC CONFESSION This confession registered a decrease in parishioners across analyzed units from 13,985

(1.23%) in 2002 to 11,834 (1.14%) in 2011. Going down to analysis of the administrative-territorial units, it is noted first that the lowest frequency is recorded in Covasna (0.11%, 241 followers) and in Harghita (0.17%, 516 followers) and highest in Mureş (2.10%, 11,077 Greek Catholics). For a fuller description we highlight three percentage categories falling within the 214 municipalities (25 cities and 189 towns and villages), belonging to the counties of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş. In urban areas, the gap below 1% covers the following towns: Miercurea Ciuc, Gheorgheni, Topliţa, Odorheiu Secuiesc, Băile Tuşnad, Bălan, Borsec, Cristuru Secuiesc, Sfântu Gheorghe, Târgu Secuiesc, Baraolt, Covasna, Sighişoara, Miercurea Nirajului and Sovata.

The next difference, between 1-2% we have Sărmaşu and Ungheni cities and category above 2% is characteristic of: Reghin (highest value 5.45%), Târnăveni, Iernut, Luduş and Târgu Mureş, while the Vlăhiţa and Sângeorgiu de Pădure, the followers number is less than 3 people, and in Întorsura Buzăului there is not listed any follower.

Regarding the rural areas, less than 1% are part of 111 common (Aita Mare, Băţani, Bodoc, Ilieni, Corund, Gălăuţaş, Plăieşii de Jos, Secuieni, Acăţari, Adămuş, Band, Cuci, Fărăgău, Păgăceaua, Valea Largă, etc, then category relative values of 1-2%, are 14 common all part of Mures County (Bahnea, Băla, Bălăuşeri, Corunca, Gorneşti, Sântana de Mureş, etc), and the third category of territorial representation of this confession to spread over 2%, is characteristic in 19 municipalities (Săcel, Aţintiş, Cheţani, Chiheru de Jos, Cozma, Cucerdea, Livezeni, Lunca, etc) while in the other 45 municipalities cult does not have any remaining practitioner (Arcuş, Brăduţ, Poian, Zăbala, Bilbor, Ciceu, Corbu, Lupeni, Zetea, Albeşti, Mădăraş, Neaua, Veţca, etc).

Since 2005, the United Romanian Church with Rome, under the Code of Canons of the Eastern Church church functions as major archbishop, based in Blaj, consisting of the Archdiocese of Făgăraș and Alba Iulia (the largest diocese of the Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek Catholic, both in geographic area and the number of believers, in this case it is appropriate and


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considered as a unit study) headed by Archbishop Lucian Muresan, then Diocese of Oradea, Cluj-Gherla Diocese, Diocese of Lugoj and the Diocese of Maramureş.

UNITARIAN CONFESSION Besides Roman Catholic and Reformed, characteristic for the Hungarian ethnic is the

Unitarian which by the number of adherents, in 2011 (41,905 parishioners, 4.06%), ranks fourth, after the Orthodox (362,282 persons), reformed (242,680) and Roman Catholic (322,932), but compared to 2002 (47,243 Unitarians, 4.18%), the cult has a slight decline.

In percentage terms the lowest values are recorded in Mureş county (2.32% of the total 12,200 Unitarians 525,764 people declared), 2.38% of the rural population (Găleşti 770 people), Adămuş 751 people, Băgaciu 648 people, etc) and 2.26% of the city (most followers being in Targu Mures, 3,296 people and Sighişoara 911 people), and in Covasna 8,682 Unitarians (4.26%), distributed approximately evenly the two areas (4,642 parishioners, 4.80% in urban areas, most being from Sfântu Gheorghe (3,075) and Baraolt (1,396) and 4,040 followers, 3.78% in rural areas, where villages notes Vârghiş (1,290 followers), Belin (738), Arcuș (517) and Aita Mare (469). Harghita County has the highest rate of 6.96% (21,023 Unitarians, out of the 302,144 people declared) 7.24% urban population, it is noted by the number Odorheiu Secuiesc (4,838 people) and Cristuru Secuiesc (3,236 persons) and 6.75% in the rural areas, including most of the Şimoneşti confirmed followers (2,612), Mărtiniş (1,898), Avrămeşti (1,600), Mereşti (964), Ocland (887) and Dârjiu (628).

To the administration, management and discipline, parishes are included in the deaneries. Unitarian Church of Transylvania is composed of six deaneries as follows: Cluj-Turda Deanery, Mureș Deanery with the following parishes: Sângeorgiu de Pădure, Sovata, Miercurea Nirajului, Sângeorgiu de Mureş, Târgu Mureş no. 1 and 2, Găleşti, Vărgata, etc; Târnava Deanery (Adămuş, Târnăveni, Sighişoara, etc) Cristuru Secuiesc Deanery (Corund, Şimoneşti, Cristuru Secuiesc, Mihăileni, Avrămeşti, Secuieni, etc); Odorheiu Secuiesc Deanery (Miercurea Ciuc, Mereşti, Mărtiniş, Sânpaul, Ocland, Odorheiu Secuiesc no. 1 and 2, Vlăhiţa, etc) and Three Chairs Deanery - Alba de Sus (Arcuş, Baraolt, Belin, Aita Mare, Valea Crişului, Sfântu Gheorghe, Târgu Secuiesc, Vârghiş etc).

OTHER RELIGIONS AND ATHEISTS By the six main religions (Orthodox, Reformed, Roman Catholic, Unitarian, Pentecostal and

Greek Catholic), which are part of the 96.57% (996,289 people) of the total population of analyzed unit, the following 15 cases (Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Muslims, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Gospel, Christian old Style, Evangelical Lutherans, Serbian Orthodox, Evangelical, evangelical Augustan Confession, Jewish, Armenian, other religion, no religion, atheists), have a total frequency of only 3.42% (35,363 parishioners). Generalized follow of the 15 cases mentioned above in the three counties that recorded the lowest value appears in Harghita (1.63%, 4,937 people), followed by one in Covasna (2.48%, 5,072 people), and the highest is in Mureş (4.82%, 25,354 people). Between these limits relative expression we can determine next steps difference is recorded in the 214 villages, presenting the situation as follows: - under 1%, in urban areas, such values are found only Borsec (0.82%) and Întorsura Buzăului (0.67%) and in rural areas in 53 villages (14 in Covasna, Harghita and 7 in Mureș); 1-2%, present in six urban settlements (Miercurea Ciuc, Topliţa, Băile Tușnad, Bălan, Cristuru Secuiesc and Târgu Secuiesc) and 37 common, 2-4% is typical in 9 cities and 42 municipalities; and the last gap of over 4% recorded in 8 cities and 55 villages, noting that in two places in Harghita County (Bilbor and Lunca de Sus) are not any atheist or follower of other religions listed above. The following will be considered presentation of 15 cases from Baptists and ending with atheists, that due to the more reduced representation, will be analyzed in absolute values. a) Baptist religion, with a percentage of 0.30% (3,135 parishioners) in 2011, has the largest number of parishioners in Mureş county (1,862, 0.35%), of which 1,034 in urban areas most numerous being in Târgu Mureş (353 Baptists) and 828 in the rural commune Suplac the most followers (95) and in 31 cities this cult does not have any follower; then in Harghita (811, 0.26%), with 421 in urban (highest


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absolute value being recorded in Gheorgheni, 200), while the cult in Băile Tuşnad is not present, and 390 in rural areas (with a maximum of 97 followers to Corund) in 35 of the cities posted sign hyphen (-), which means lack of followers, and Covasna 462 (0.22%) with 244 Baptists in urban settlements (the most numerous being the Sfântu Gheorghe, 95 persons) and 218 persons in rural areas (32 Bixad and Cernat), and 20 communes are registered to their absence. b) Seven-Day Adventist religion is represented by 10,346 parishioners, ie 1.00% of the population of the three counties, the most numerous followers are in Mureş County (8,979, 1.70%), mainly in Târgu Mureş (1,340), Reghin (653), Crăciuneşti (760) Ceuaşu de Câmpie (562), Sâncraiu de Mureş (405), Sântana de Mureş (365), lacking only in 7 communes of the 91 rural settlements, and in Covasna (875, 0.42%), of which 211 in Sfântu Gheorghe and in rural areas the most numerous being Hăghig (166 followers) and Vâlcele (164 followers) in 20 villages and they are not present, and in Harghita only 492 (0.16%) in urban most numerous being Gheorgheni (81) and Topliţa (70), missing in Băile Tuşnad şi Borsec and in rural largest number occurs in Atid (66), and 33 communes are not present. c) Muslim religion, with a frequency of 0.02% (210 members) in the whole area analyzed, shows the largest number of followers in Mureş county (157), especially in Târgu Mureş (70) and Reghin (41), while in rural in almost all villages are recorded not as followers, and where present number is often less than 10 people. In other counties, the number is very low, with 28 members in Covasna, of which 21 are residents in Sfântu Gheorghe, and 25 in Harghita, of which 20 are urban residents (Miercurea Ciuc, Bălan, Gheorgheni şi Cristuru Secuiesc). d) Jehovah’s Witnesses religion, in a number of 9970 parishioners, representing 0.96% of the population declared three counties (1,031,652 people), with 6,981 people in Mureş (1.32%), of which 47.26% in Târgu Mureş (from a total of 3,307 followers in urban areas), most rural followers number is Valea Largă (689 people), Cristeşti (250), Glodeni (248), Zau de Câmpie (215), etc., Harghita County has the highest rise of neo protestants (0.57% and 1724 followers), the most numerous being in Odorheiu Secuiesc (364) and Praid (264) and in Covasna county 1265 controls (0.62% ), with a maximum of 363 followers at Sfântu Gheorghe and 135 witnesses in Boroşneu Mare; e) Christian Evangelical religion with 0.13% (1,410 parishioners) has the following order in the counties list: Mureş (0.20%, 1060), with over 200 parishioners only in Târnăveni and rural registered the highest numbers of Băgaciu (84 people); Harghita (0.08%, 270), with a maximum of 57 persons in Odorheiu Secuiesc and 70 persons in Praid and the last county, Covasna (0.03%, 80 persons, including 56 in rural areas, with less than half focus only in Hăghig. f) Old Rite Christian religion is represented with a frequency of 0.01% (107 followers), with a higher concentration in the County (0.01% and 91 people, nearly half the residents of the Municipality of Târgu Mureş) and Covasna are declared only 10 parishioners, only one person in rural areas, the remainder being residents of the Municipality of Sfântu Gheorghe, and in Harghita, the followers of this cult numbers only 6 people, including 4 in Miercurea Ciuc. g) Evangelical Lutheran religion has a percentage of 0.16%, with 1,713 followers, the situation requiring the following hierarchy: Covasna (0.41%, 851 people), and in Mureş (0.13%, 715) and only 147 in Harghita (0.04%) with a clear indication of the fact that most are concentrated in the capital of the county. h) Serb Orthodox religion, with a percentage of 0.01% (133 parishioners), the entire unit under investigation, the Orthodox Serbs are concentrated in Mures county (0.02%, 129 persons), 4 in Harghita and the lowest representation of this religion less than three (indicated by an asterisk in the census), was recorded in Covasna. i) Evangelical religion, with 1,051 parishioners, holds 0.10% of the counties of Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties, Mureş county concentrated mainly in (0.16%, 865 parishioners), then Covasna (0.05%, 102) and Harghita (0.02%, 84). j) Evangelical of Augustan Confession, represented by a total of 652 parishioners (0.06%) is present in the Mureş with 491 followers, 122 Covasna and Harghita with only 39 parishioners. k) Mosaic religion is the the lowest number of followers, or 88 people, of which over 80% are residents of Mureş County (72 persons), while in other counties are under 10 parishioners (7 in Harghita and Covasna 9).


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l) Armenian religion occupy the last by one place after the Jewish in terms of number of followers (92 people), 70 are in Harghita, Mureş and only 18 in 4 in Covasna. m) Another religion 0.21% (2,167 parishioners) represents that segment of the population falling outside the 18 religions (from Orthodox to Armenian), the most numerous being in the Mureş (0.24%, 1,274), then in Harghita (0.16%, 490) and Covasna (0.19%, 403 people). n) Free of religion, 0.35% (3,650 people) of the total of 1,031,652 people declared that belong counties studied, the Mureş are included 2,201 persons (0.41%) in Covasna 794 (0.38%) and in Harghita 655 (0.21%). o) Atheists are represented by a total of 638 people (0.06%), the lowest number recorded in Covasna (66 persons) and 113 people in Harghita and Mureş County, the maximum number of 459 persons. p) Unavailable information first introduced in the act of making the census in Romania, the observation unit is part of a total of 40,238 persons, that represents 3.75% of the total resident population of 1,071,890 inhabitants. In the three administrative units analyzed the situation as follows: 25,082 people in Mureş County 8723 people in Harghita and Covasna 6,433 persons included in information not available.

Generalized in the three counties, it was the establishment of four thresholds of representation in relation to information unavailable, as follows:

- less than 50 people presented in 89 locations (35 in Harghita, Covasna 23 and 31 in the County); - next level between 50-200 people, corresponds to 88 locations (23 in Harghita, Covasna

16 in Covasna and 49 in Mureș); - level 200-350 people is characteristic of 20 localities (4 Harghita, 4 Covasna and 12 Mureş); - over 350 people there in 17 localities corresponding to urban and rural centers of the

three largest counties, 5 Harghita, 2 Covasna and Mureş.

CONCLUSIONS At the 2011 census, the population of the three counties decreased by 57,632 persons

compared to the situation in 2002, but the last population census conducted on 1,071,890 stable inhabitants, only 1,031,625 people declared their religion. Thus resulting in a significant number of people (40,238), whose religious identity is unknown.

Table 2. The general structure of religions in the three counties (Harghita, Covasna and Mureş),

in 2002 and 2011 (synthesis)

Year County Orthodox Roman-Cathilic

Reformed Pentecostal Greek-

Catholic Unitarian

Other religions and

atheists3

2002

Harghita 13.26 65.27 12.65 0.10 0.16 7.11 1.42 Covasna 22.42 36.15 33.40 1.40 0.12 4.36 2.11 Mureş 53.25 9.51 27.03 1.20 2.27 2.46 4.25

TOTAL 35.63 30.86 24.13 0.92 1.23 4.18 3.01

2011

Harghita 12.46 66.41 12.16 0.19 0.17 6.96 1.63 Covasna 21.35 36.20 33.27 2.31 0.11 4.26 2.48 Mureş 53.47 9.23 26.27 1.78 2.10 2.32 4.82

TOTAL 35.11 31.30 23.52 1.42 1.14 4.06 3.42

Religious structure, faithfully follows the evolution and the territorial distribution of ethnic groups, reflecting a majority of Orthodox religion (35.11%), in the administrative-territorial units of the upper and middle Mureș, Gurghiu and Târnava Mare rivers and Întorsura Buzăului Depression followed by the Roman Catholic majority in Giurgeu and Ciuc depressions (31.30%), and the Reformed (23.52%), mostly overlapping in Valea Nirajului and

3"Other ethnicities and undeclared" includes solely the category of other ethnicities, without undeclared.


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Târnava Mare, Unitarian (4.06%), the last three of which corresponds Hungarian population, followed by the Pentecostal (1.42%) and Greek Catholic (1.14%). All six confessions comprise 96.57% of the population of these three counties.

Aknowlegments This paper is a result of a doctoral research made possible by the financial support of the

Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the European Social Found, under the project POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391 -“Doctoral and postdoctoral excellence programs for training highly qualified human resources for research in the fields of Life Sciences, Environment and Earth”.

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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online August 23, 2014 September 13, 2014 November 15, 2014



SSTTUUDDYY AANNDD DDIIAACCHHRROONNIICC AANNAALLYYSSIISS OOFF CCHHAANNGGEESS OOFF GGRROOUUNNDD OOCCCCUUPPAATTIIOONN IINN AARREEAA OOFF OORRIIEENNTTAALL AAUURREESS AALLGGEERRIIAA

AAbbddeellhhaaffiidd BBOOUUZZEEKKRRII University Hadj Lakhdar - Batna, Department of Earth and Universe Sciences, Faculty of sciences, Algeria


HHaasssseenn BBEENNMMEESSSSAAOOUUDD University Hadj Lakhdar-Batna, Laboratory Natural risks and Planning of Territory (LRNAT),

Faculty of Sciences Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Algeria with its situation and its territorial dimensions count among the countries which have an important natural potential, today's subject of caprices of hue climate aridity, where the effects are conjugate more by intense socialization of ecosystems especially in mountainous and steppe zone big part of the territory is threaded by desertification. The objective of this study is to determine the contribution of the satellite images in the detection of ground occupation changes and to pursuit in forms of degradation between the three dates 1987, 2000 and 2013 in the area of oriental Aurés in Algerian East. Our methodology is based on the use of data of the ground occupation, through the assisted and supervised classification with the method of maximum of images chariness by the satellite Landsat TM of 1987, ETM of 2000 and oil of 2013. The obtained results show the forest cover and the steppe of Alfa and wormwood, they are regressed by against the bare soil and sandy soil; they have a new remarkably increase. This multi temporal study is a diagnostic which allows us in the same time to determine the Phenomena's of degradation which touches in vast areas the Aurés causing a regression of vegetal cover, but also in its evolution between 1987 and 2013. Key words: diachronic analysis, remote sensing, land occupation, oriental Aurès.

* * * * * *

INTRODUCTION Algeria is an exceptional ecologic entity in the Biosphere, the rapid population growth, the

difficult climate conditions, the overexploitation of the natural resources; those precedent factors generated the problems of degradation (Benderraji et al., 2006). The oriental Aures is formed by a mountainous ecosystem of the Atlas Saharan and the steppe ecosystem of the south. The agro-ecosystem mountains are almost in a state of advanced degradation of the effect of human pressing: deforestation in adapted plowing on steppe slopes, overgrazing, overexploitation of groundwater (Benabdeli, 1993; Bouidjra, 2011) and high Algerian steppe plains regions are essentially pastoral vocation. They are today strong tendency on the degradation which is translated in the reeducation of biological potential and the breakdown of ecological equilibrium (Abdessemed, 1984). The studies on the change in the land occupation, are very important because


Study and Diachronic Analysis of Changes of Ground…

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they allow to now the current trends in processes of deforestation degradation desertification and loss of biodiversity of given region (Lanbien et al., 2001; Cristina et al., 2009).

The remote sensing permit to survive our environment on large expanses, to make comparison between time and space in order to understand better the function of ecosystems (Tidjani et al., 2009).

During the last decades, a good number of works were realized on the evaluation of the ground occupation in Algeria among them we can mention (Anser, 2002; Bensaid, 2006; Benmessaoud, 2009; Bouiadjra, 2011).

The present work is given to a principal objective to realize cards of ground occupation in the Aurés oriental during the years 1987, 2000 and 2013 in order understand and analysis the changes of ground occupation between two periods of 26 years (1987- 2013) were performed on the basis of satellite images processing of Landsat.

AREA OF STUDY The oriental Aurés located in the East of Saharan Atlas between 34,16°and 35,67° of North

latitude and between 6,50° and 7,92° of longitude, it covers a global area near to 1,421,732 ha, it culminates to 2326 m to Ras Keltoum, is the biggest in northern Algeria, it is characterized by strong gradients.

Figure 1. Geographic situation of study region

The climate of Aures oriental is continental type in north and almost in south, the winters are

very harsh; the summers are hot and dry. The bioclimatic floors spread of subsumed to semiarid.

Abdelhafid BOUZEKRI, Hassen BENMESSAOUD

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The soils are poor and less deep except in north where the ground is relatively deeper, also the rock sea outcrops. The vegetation covert of the area is composed of two types the forest cover in north ,its covered by upstream to downstream with the cedar, the green oak, the Aleppo pine, the Phoenician juniper, in the south area ,the vegetation is formed by the steppe routes and Saharan, the principal species met are the Alfa and worm wood. On the human plan, the study area knew a demographic growth this one concerned the agglomerated population that the Sparse population. social and ecological balance is disrupted is by begetting increased need for population growth that has not been accompanied by a creation job sufficiently consequent to absorb the labor of Works excedente to the needs of a reasonable use of rangelands (Manière et al., 1993; Bedrani, 1993; Moulay et al., 2011).

MATERIAL AND METHODS Our approach is based on the use of remote sensing data to realize our diachronic analysis,

we chose six satellite images, Lansat taken on 09 May 1988 and 16 June 1987 (sensor thematic mapper TM), on the 07 March 2000 and the 24 April 2000. Capteur thematic mapper ETM – the 07 march 2000 and the 24 april 2000, Enhanced Thematic Mapper ETM+, the 17 April 2013 and the 15 June 2013 (Sensor operational Land imager OLI. They are all acquired during the dry season ,or we can distinguish deferent kinds of land. In order to use images of remote sensing in the treatment and analysis, we followed three principal stages: pretreatment images, supervised classification and development of evidence of land used changes; this gait is represented by figure 3.

Figure 2. Map of sample


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Pretreatment of satellite images These are operations on satellite images are intended to improving viewing images and

facilitate their interpretation while first we correct and improve geometric correction is to correct the images in the manner rends superimposed on the images or to map reference document the radiometric rectification when it is to change the visual appearance of the image in order to facilitate its interpretation , after carrying out all the adjustment elementary operations of contrast (luminance enhancement), then a mosaic for both Scene key (193/35) and (193/36) according to their exact position on the surface of earth that we gave overview of the study area. Also we applied on the mosaic ked image a mask from the administrate limits of eastern AURES for the extraction of our study area. A colored composition with false color was prepared, it results from the superposition of three spectral bungs, each of which is assigned to one of three primary colors-red, green, blue, by convention red color is attributed to the near-infrared band. The green color on the red band and the blue color on the green band.

Missions of recognition and ground data Lot of missions of knowing the fields were done for the fixing and the knowing of certain

numbers of represented parcels of different types of land sensing which met the study zone. The ground mission was done in spring 2013 (April and May 2013) it includes a set of points collected in the field by GPS positioning, these points are georeferenced in longitude, latitude and give an information of ground occupation prated on 10 classes relevant with respect to our objectives of study; dense forest. Clair forest, steppe to Alfa, steppe to worm wood, cereal, gardening, bare soil sandy soils, water plan and finally chott and sebkha. We use Earth Google in order to finish our field knowing, for the difficult places to access to security causes, the complementary points of sample of earth Google and the raised GPS points, are represented in form of sample card in the figure 2.

Validation of the classification One classification was operated on a colored composition, it is about assisted, supervised

classification by maximum of likelihood which classifies the functioned pixels of their similarity with the numeric counts of geographic object of determined reference on the image (parcels of training) and validated by land counts (El Garouani et al., 2007).

The tables 1, 2 and 3 represent the matrixes of confusion show for every class the principal confusions do the work of supervised classification of images. Those tables show the number of the good classified pixels, but with the indices of Kappa (0,73, 0,82 and 0,82) which we précised for the dates 1987, 2000 and 2013 allow us to conclude that the results of these classifications are acceptable statiquely.

Table 1. Confusion matrix of the supervised classification of landsat 1987

Class Dense foret

Clair foret

Steppe of Alfa

Wormwood Steppe

Cereal cultur

e

Gardening

Bare soil

Sandy soil

Water plan

Chott and

Sebkha

Total

Dense foret 2261 213 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2474 Clair foret 292 1739 59 3 453 0 0 0 0 4 2550 Steppe of Alfa

1 89 1707 92 451 8 0 0 0 0 2348

Wormwood Steppe

0 17 58 1593 11 1 9 0 0 0 1689

Cereal culture

0 195 364 41 1606 0 8 0 2 10 2226

Gardening 3 3 4 0 0 314 0 0 0 0 324 Bare soil 0 0 1 229 539 0 441 0 0 0 1210

Sandy soil 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 676 0 0 690 Water plan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 276 0 276 Chott and Sebkha

0 0 2 5 135 0 8 0 2 545 697

Total 2557 2256 2195 1977 3195 323 466 676 280 559 14484


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Table 4. Percentage and size of units of land

Type of land Area in 1987 Area in2000 Area in 2013

hectares In % hectares In % hectares In %

Dense forest 44.681,31 03,14 22.956,3 01,61 13.612,50 00,96

Clair forest 106.904,52 07,52 94.931,46 06,68 78.843,51 05,54

Steppe of Alfa 164.753,46 11,59 184.488,12 12,98 126.659,34 08,91 Wormwood steppe 463.259,7 32,58 253.113,3 17,80 179.760,60 12,64

Cereal culture 247.849,02 17,43 174.541,86 12,28 276.372,45 19,44 gardening 18.161,1 01,28 71.730,63 05,04 47.760,21 03,36

Bare soil 222.489,36 15,65 328.562,82 22,92 380.006,55 26,73

Sandy soil 108.577,89 07,64 267.725,16 18,83 289.068,57 20,33

Water plan 45,45 0,003 262,62 00,02 245,43 00,02

Chott and Sebkha 45.046,71 03,17 26.120,61 01,84 2.9397,69 02,07

Total 1.421.768,52 100.00 1.421.732,88 100.00 1421726,85 100.00

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION With the help of data of remote sensing, we assumed to know three occupation cards of the

ground (Figure 4, 5, 6) respect in 1987, 2000 and 2013, also where respective statics of all occupation classes of the ground during the three dates (Table 4), this table is graphic presented

Class dense foret

Clair foret

Steppe of Alfa

Wormwood Steppe

Cereal culture

Gardening

Bare soil

Sandy soil

Water plan

Chott and

Sebkha Total

dense foret 1672 37 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1710 Clair foret 43 1329 76 00 2 122 18 0 1 0 1591

Steppe of Alfa 0 188 2032 29 67 4 27 0 0 0 2347 Wormwood

Steppe 0 0 43 1361 24 0 249 8 0 0 1685

Cereal culture 0 72 65 95 887 29 25 0 0 0 1173 Gardening 3 221 10 1 136 119 27 0 0 0 517 Bare soil 0 4 51 359 360 0 1495 58 0 7 2334

Sandy soil 0 0 0 6 0 0 18 4576 0 7 4607

Water plan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 505 0 505

Chott and Sebkha

0 0 0 55 0 0 52 12 1 626 746

Total 1718 1851 2277 1906 1476 275 1911 4654 507 640

1721

5

Class dense foret

Clair foret

Steppe of Alfa

Wormwood Steppe

Cereal culture

Gardening Bare soil

Sandy soil

Water plan

Chott and Sebkha

Total

dense foret 708 132 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 840 Clair foret 45 1733 0 0 7 4 0 0 0 0 1792 Steppe of Alfa

0 2 975 3 301 12 0 0 0 0 1293

Wormwood Steppe

0 0 0 465 0 0 824 0 0 0 1289

Cereal culture

0 6 53 0 1273 24 119 0 0 0 1475

Gardening 2 22 0 0 58 660 0 0 0 0 742 Bare soil 0 0 0 84 31 0 13312 13 0 0 13440

Sandy soil 0 0 0 0 1 0 629 1257 0 45 1932

Water plan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 442 0 442 Chott and Sebkha

0 0 0 0 1 0 3 166 0 798 968

Total 755 1895 1028 552 1672 703 14887 1436 442 843

24213


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(Figure 7). Those results of three classifications allow us to make a diachronic analysis in order to understand the evolution of ground occupation between the deferent studied dates.

Figure 3. Methodological flowchart

Figure 4. Map of land use in 1987 Figure 5. Map of land use in 2000


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Figure 6. Map of land use in 2013

Status of the land in 1987 At this date, the ground occupation was dominated by the wormwood step covers

463.259,7 hectars, about 32,58 % of total surface, the formations which based on the wormwood occupied the zone of spreaders. The unit of cereal culture occupies 247.849,02 hectares, about 17, 43 % concerns the planting prepared to make cabinet and it locates most in the north of the study zone. The bruit soil is 222.489,36 hectares, about 15,65 % locates in the south of mountains of Nmamecha and the sandy soil is 108.613,53 hectares of estimated superficies of 7,64 % of the total territory, it locates in south of the areas of Ferkane, Negrine and in the south of Babar town.

The bioclimatic conditions are favored to instable surfaces of alfa which cover a superficies equal to 164753,46 hectares equal a percentage of 11,59 % the zones semi-arid superior and subsumed are favored to install forest formations the forests of Chelia and Djebel Feraoun in the south west of the village of khenchela are dense forests which occupied 44.681,31 hectares, 3,14% of the total surface, in other hand it exists claire forests full of painting of despite in degraded form covers a superficies of 106.904,52 hectares about 7.52% locates especially on Djbel Mellagou.

The Chott Sebkha training and spread over an area of 45.046,71 hectares these formations are appearing in the municipality of Mahmal and south of the town of Babar. The culture unit gardening is 1,28% of the total surfaces this type of culture we find as orchards in the wadis. The plan virtually nonexistent except for small dam in the town of Kais occupies 0.003% of the total surface water.

Status of the land in 2000 The cartography of the ground occupation in 2000 shows that the ground occupation is

dominated by the bruit grounds 22,92% of the sandy soils which represent 18,83% of the total surface. The steppe vegetations also occupies an important space 17,80% for the wormwood and 12,98% for alfa. Cereal culture crops covers an area of 174,541.86 hectares or 12.28% of the total area. The forest dense covers 6,68% for the Clair forests and 1.61% for the dense forests. The gardening charge cultures dominate 71730.63 hectares, about 5.04% of the area of study. The other units represent 1.84% for the theme chott and Sebkha is 0.02% for the water plan.


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Status of the land in 2013 About the state of ground occupation in 2013 the picture 6 shows that: The bare soil cover

the biggest part of the area about 26.73% the sandy soils has proportion of 20.33% of the total space of the zone. Cereal culture in 2013 an area of known 276,372.45 hectares or about 19.44% of the total area. The forest formation covers 5.54% for the Claire forest 0.96% for the dense forests. The wormwood steppes occupied 12.64% of the total zone with 8.91% for the alfa; the gardening cultures represent 3.36% of the total surface. Finally, we have a proportion of 2.07% for the chott and Sebkha and 0.02% for the water plan.

Detected changes between 1987 and 2000 The changes of the ground occupation between 1987 and 2000 for the 10 classes are

presented in (Figure 7) which shows the area of study are observable changed correspond to: - regression of dense and Claire forests their decrease are more than 3.14%, 7.52%, to

1.61%, 6.68% respectivment; - alight increase of the steppe to also more than 11.59% to 12.98%; - a considerable reduction for the surfaces of the steppe for wormwood, we can say that the

reduction of this class decreased to 14.78%; - decease of the surfaces of cereal culture over 1.28% to 5.04%; - an increase for the gardening class increased from 1,28% to 5,04%; - an extension for the bruit soils and the sandy soils over 15.65%, 7.64% to 22.92%,

18.83% respectivment; - increase in the water plans which passed 0.003% to 0.02%; - decease in the theme of chott and sebkha passed 3.17% to 1.84%.

‐250000‐200000‐150000‐100000‐50000

050000

100000150000200000

Dense forest

Clair forest

Steppe of Alfa

mwood steppe

Cereal culture

Gardening

Bare soil

Sandy soil

Water plan

ott and Sebkha

Figure 7. Graphic of results of changes between the period 1987 - 2000

Detected changes between 2000 and 2013 About what's concerns the change of the ground occupation between 2000 and 2013 (figure

8) shows that the zone submit the changes manifest with: - a decrease of surfaces covert by the dense forests over than 1,61% to 0,96%; - a reduction in suffices covert by the Clair forests over than 6,68% to 5,54%; - decrease in the steppe of Alfa over than 12,98% to 8,91%; - decrease in the wormwood steppe over than 17,80% to 12,64%; - increase in cereal culture over than 12,28% to 19,44%; - a regression of the gardening theme over than 5,04%to 3,36%; - increase in surfaces which characterized by the bare soils is passed 22,92% to 26,73%;


188

- during this period the water plan class presents a big stability between the two dates; - increase in the class chott and Sebkha is over than 1,84 % to 2,07%.

0

50000

100000

150000

t t a d

e g

Figure 8. Graphic of results of changes between the period 2000- 2013

Detected changes between 1987 and 2013 The analysis of data of remote sensing across the diachronic analysis of two cards of

ground occupation, allow us to mention the deferent changes through 10 classes between 1987-2013 about 26 years, those changes are presented in the picture 9 which shows:

The dense forests occupation submit to important changes, where it is passed 44.681,31 ha in 1987 to 13.612,5 ha in 2013, which it was almost a reduction of 2,18%, also the Clair forests knew a light regression of the order of 1,98% these degradations of forest's cover justified by the sedar and the last firs which touched the forest of Beni M'loul.

This occupation dominates 463259,7 ha during 1978 and passed 179.760,6 ha during 2013, equal a deference of 28.349,46 ha. This regression caused by the climatic factors like dryness and the entropic factors which plays a major role in the degradation like the overgrazing and the defrichment works, a big space of the steppe vegetation was transformed to bare ground or to a field of gardening.

‐50000

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

est

est

lfa

ppe

ure ng

Figue 9. Graphic of results of changes between the periods 198-2013

The cereal represents an increase between the periods 1987 and 2013 which is over than

17,43% and 19,44% equal an increase of 2% relative to the direction of habitants of this zone across the gardening to ensure their supply.


189

The occupation by the gardening submitted to change passed 1,28% till 3,63%, this increase (2,08%) returns to the efforts which encourages the invistissment of the adored cultures.

The soil knew an important extension over than 15, 65% in 1987 and reached to 26,73% in 2013, this extension registered by the less of stepped vegetation (alfa, wormwood).

The sandy soils knew an important increase was the most touched by this change, we can say that this class increased to 12,69% between the periods 1987and 2013, an average of weak recovery of the vegetation and deep soil product sandy grounds.

The water plans knew a light increase which passed 0,003% to 0,02% because of the realization of dam in the town of Babar.

The space of chott and sebkha registered a decrease of 3,17% to 2,07 because sand movements which occupied.

CONCLUSION The diachronic analysis of the ground occupation between 1987, 2000 and 2013, shows the

deep transformation of our environment during the time, this analysis based on the obtained results from the supervised classification of satellite images landsat and the extraction of detected changes, we have noted that the most important changes were in the second period between (2000-2013) and they concern especially the regression of forest covert and steppe vegetation and the extension of sandy grounds and bare soil, we noted also that the steppe vegetation developed form a forest vegetation by degradation. The degradation which touches the area of oriental AURES is generated by the drought and generalized in all of Algeria during the last years, and the over exploitation of lands by the anthropogenic interventions.

REFERENCES Abdessemed K. (1984), Les problèmes de la dégradation des formations végétales dans l 'Aurès (Algérie), première partie

la dégradation et ses origines et ses conséquences, Forêt Méditerranéenne, 1(1): 19-26. Ansar A. (2002), L'Aurès Oriental : un milieu en dégradation, Journal Algérien des Régions Arides,1(1) : 24-32. Bedrani S. (1993), Les aspects socio-économiques et juridiques de la gestion des terres arides dans les pays

méditerranéens, INA-CREAD, n°31-32, 1992, El-Harrach Alger/ CIHEAM et Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes, vol. 1, 1993, Montpellier.

Benderradji M.E.H., Alatou D., Arfa A.M.T., Benachour K. (2006), Problèmes de dégradation de l'environnement par la désertification et la déforestation Impact du phénomène en Algérie, New Medit, 5(4):15-22.

Benabdeli K. (1993), Agriculture, alimentation et environnement: Une trilogie en déséquilibre, Ecosystems, n° 1, p. 70-74. Benmessaoud H., Kalla M., Driddi H. (2009), Évolution de l'occupation des sols et désertification dans le Sud des Aurès

(Algérie), M@ppemonde, 94(6). Berkane A., Yahiaou A. (2007), L'érosion dans les Aurès, Revue de la Sécheresse, 18(3): 213-216. Bouiadjra S.E.B., El Zerey W., Benabdeli K. (2001), Étude diachronique des changements du couvert végétal dans un

écosystème montagneux par télédétection spatiale: cas des monts du Tessala (Algérie occidentale), Physio-Géo, 5(12): 211-225.

Cristina N.M. et al. (2009), Évaluation du changement de l'occupation du sol à l'aide des images Landsat et Spot: champ volcanique de la Sierra Chichinautzin (Mexique), Internacional Cartography Conference

El Garouani A., Chen H., Lewis L., Tribak A., Abahrour M. (2007), Apport de la Télédétection et du SIG pour le suivi spatio-temporel de l’occupation du sol et de l’érosion nette dans le bassin de l’Oued Tlata (Maroc), Revue Télédétection, 8(3):193-201.

Lambin, E.F. et al. (2001), The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environmental Change, 11: 261–269. Moulay A. Benabdeli K. Morsli A. (2011), Contribution a l’identification des principaux facteurs de dégradation des steppes à Stipa tenacissima du sudouest algérien. Revue Mediterranea volume II n°22 : 149-188. Tidjani A.A., Ozer A., Karimoune S. (2009), Apports de la télédétection dans l'étude de la dynamique environnementale de la région de Tchago (nord-ouest de Gouré, Niger), Geo-Eco-Trop, 33: 69-80.

Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online

July 15, 2014 August 22, 2014 November 19, 2014



JJOOUURRNNEEYYSS,, OOTTHHEERRNNEESSSS,, EEXXCCHHAANNGGEESS

MMiicchheell FFRRAANNCCKK Principal researcher of CEREGMIA (University of the West Indies and Guyana) Research associate of PACTE

(University of Grenoble), e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: In the current essay the journey is looked at from more angles both as a sacred place, diversity, a momentum of self discovery, a quest into self for the authentic travellers, be it a trip halfway around the world, or sometimes a race to the end of the street. Other and Elsewhere are passage rituals based on travel myths which can provide responses to the malaise of the madding Western society which undervalues and even marginalizes the nomadic tribes, Roma population, refugees, that is real travelers who start their genuine bias-free journey where certainties end. Travel is thus interpreted through the eys of a tourist writer always on the move, between Bali, the West Indies, the Guyana, Strasbourg, etc; the thoughts below being extracted from the three books on travelling, illustrated at the reference section below.

* * * * * *

It is quite obvious that the journey is not only exotic but also meant to train. It needs to be reminded. Living within and experiencing the world around us, everyone is formed throughout one’s life. I think the travel experience opens not only new horizonsfor us but even more it expands the range of possibilities. Bearing this in mind, it distorts and challenges our perception of the Other and Elsewhere, a projection too often formatted by our society and history, that of winners. Leaving means to make relative what we thought we knew, see with other eyes, and otherwise taste plural flavors that we unearthed from our market world. An authentic trip, whether it be a trip halfway around the world, or sometimes a race to the end of the street is primarily a journey into self. Our desires also fit into a willingness to change the environment, get away or unstitch. They are passage rituals based on travel myths. They also offer a response - an excuse sometimes – to the malaise of the madding Western society (trampling everything on its way).

"Living together" incorrectly set within our temperate regions somehow revives when tourists arrive under the coconut trees, therefore under the tropics, not always so sad. But the sometimes even a little rotten, coconut trees continue to make our modern journeys dream on, which sometimes rather circulate than travel. These twenty-first century tourists are desperate to get their share of paradise, even artificial if necessary. Through travel, the Southerners emerge besides policymakers and Northern consumers. The journey is not only a way to rethink the prevailing economic order but also life, the world, politics. The first sentence of my book Désirs d’Ailleurs / Desires of Elsewhere - recently released again and updated under the title Du voyage et des hommes (2013)/ Of Travel and Men (2013) - summarizes the challenges of travel philosophy which, in my opinion, must remain focused on learning of both life and freedom : "The journey begins where our certainties end". Easy to say, harder to live.


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191

RETHINKING JOURNEYS Receptacle of our imagination, the journey is a happy blending mixture, an appeal to the

exchange output (production) and if it does not encourage either exchange nor blending, it boils down to a common movement. Connecting point A to point B involves a bare movement not travel or tourism. Admittedly, our landmarks tend to blur lately. Some holidaymakers’ difficulty to see the time pass by and be firstly devoted to space reflects the blurring/jamming of maps. Our time with its czars and stars, expels "the people of travel", quite badly referred to by our concerns because the term refers precisely - so beautifully – to the mystical road and nomads. If endowed with dreams of freedom, the Europeans enjoy the term, the reality on the terrain does not follow the magic of words, and they obviously do not like it. Much contempt against the incomprehensible jealousy hides behind the refusal of otherness. At the same time, our contemporaries discover the traffic jams on a driving holiday, each wishing to enjoy his poorly paid but well deserved share of elsewhere. Indeed, many of the travel agencies’ customers depart occupying the least corners of beaches - domestic or foreign - during the summer festivals period: best seaside fun sit-ins but never political. They move much more than they are traveling, but deception works great, the staff of the agency grow old with a good work ethic not disclosing the swindle, at any time, he will not forget to treat these displaced kind of modern refugees from work placed in holiday camps, who are travelers and even adventurers.

Another example, another place: on the tarmac of Paris-Roissy or Bamako airport, a young French tourist, a bio-ecological solidarity activist, came especially to Mali to support an associative project and visit the countryside with the desire to share few slices of village life among the elderly sages of the community, meets the gaze of a Malian handcuffed family father on the brink of expulsion, for lack of official documents. We are told that it is a "means of removal" and not an expulsion.

Inside. At any time and in any place, the undesirable have always been carefully "removed" beyond the outskirts of the city, civilization, and shortly, acceptable boundaries for the domesticated right-thinker. Remains a grail-shaped cult book: no doubt that the most read popular required expensive little book, isn’t like in the past a little red book or a bible or fashionable koran, or a first aid manual or junior beavers’ manual, no, it is the passport. If it is a bestseller that is little known of, this is the one. If reading it, is not necessarily essential or even exciting, its supervision and control are. Traveling without papers has become more difficult nowadays than walking down the street or take the subway bare naked. They are funny samples of our present civilization, at a time when social link is not necessarily synonymous with social networks. Indeed, our accelerated world if not oppressive galore social networks but all online Facebook profiles are but faceless books whose virtual mobility is not matched but in the reflection of the intellectual ambient status quo. Communication has killed meeting, and the "500 million friends" considered by your profile, will stare at and intersect on canvas are all potential bulky enemies, capable to deprive you of an illusory freedom overnight or deprive you of freedom itself. Maybe this type of clash tomorrow will be necessary so that the highway can again prevail on the big screen. Grand Dehors vs Grand Dedans.

TRAVEL AS A SACRED PLACE The road follows the sinuous contours of a path still in gestation, being drawn, written,

traveled, while the screen as flat as it is, announces the gloom of a spicy less life, a life whose last morsels of choice were cut off the to keep only the comfortable and secure aspects promised by commodification. If the route is located in the heart of truant enterprises that holds the test road, routine occupies the daily fixed on the Internet user's docile screen, almost screwed onto his electric chair, and of course subscriber Canal + as well as to the psychiatrist’s office nearby. In a sterile world where the slightest risk-taking is part of a rare courage, the freedom of travel is not (anymore) assigned to all. Not because the free traveler would be exceptional, far from it, but because for becoming one, one has to return to the path of fighting for his own emancipation. And there, prospective travelers are much more discreet: in other words, engaging in conversation with

Michel FRANCK

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the cousin of the Moroccan Berber grocer around the corner is more disruptive than imagining to participate in yet another edition of a TV show more or less demeaning, sometimes with obvious racist overtones, like the Pékin-Express or Bienvenue dans ma tribu/Welcome to my tribe. The traveler and his shadow as Nietzsche said... well before the advent of television and even recreation.

The journey is nothing without the "authentic" meeting it is presumed to produce and, hence, our onlooker debating on the lives of Berbers a doorstep away from him makes even more kilometers in his head and in his heart than the disreputable lord that dreams to spend what was once and finally remains a common cathode-ray tube. The trip is an excuse, a text word for word, an avant la lettre trip as a desire to escape to better advance, so as to return, a more physical than literary act to find a meaning to his existence, a reason to live for not just surviving. Thoughts about action, the step is not clear, and it is so easy to rely on official dealers of exotic dreams - delegating is always leaving - a bit like in the religious field where many of our contemporaries give their blessing to licensed managers of the sacred at other times so well decrypted by Max Weber. The sacred is rarely distant from the act if not the art of travel.

LEAVING FOR BETTER REMAINING The desire of foreign tourists to arrive here moderates or deprives our contemporaries’

desire to go elsewhere: is this not a proof that one feels well at home first? Why continue to check if life is more beautiful with others if not wanting to reassure? But staying is also a way to reassure, it is meant to validate the failure to discover, play it safe rather than risk. It is coming back to otherwise secure values. Setting out on the road comes back to sow doubt home and even doubt about home. Travel is to seek, consciously or not, answers elsewhere and with others: treachery, marginality, subversion rebellion against the established order are already on the lips of the sedentary who judge hastily the black sheep’s leave. Accused of not thinking of others - as he hopes to encounter along the way - and forget his obligations to the employer, the state, the church, the family, etc., this (re) taker of freedoms until then confiscated is in his head. It is likely to be perceived by those around him more as an ego - traveler than a friendly ecotourist. Through the bias of travel, we enjoy while traveling the joys if not the happiness of a newfound freedom. And coming home, it's back to normal life, its customs and habits, a life which is truly sometimes more gloomy than pink and normality returns to the norm or standardization and requires too often to abandon this freedom, temporarily regained the blessed time of the trip ...

The return is actually never simple, the (supposed) 'reality' quickly becomes a liberty killer, not to mention that almost everyone will envy the temporary freedom or the one who dared to defy the "Great System" - to use the term and title of a book by Georges Balandier - largely governed by the voluntary consented servitude of our citizens. By dint of being sleepy or doped with anabolic consumerism, the latter are no longer able to get up to walk against the current: yet it is walking and moving - traveling – that you can be up and therefore refuse to live on your knees.

If some tourist journeys can be it, journeys are rarely uniform, they are multiple by essence, they have no need of the One and only derives to the Miscellaneous. The journey is not primarily a great dream factory where constantly begin the plans on the comet and follies to make or remake? This craft factory which combines passion and imagination can be seen now as transformed or converted, under the battering of economic liberalism in the tourism and leisure scheduled industry. But the journey continues to be in our privileged and shaped societies around the concept of work, a break, a pause, in a breath which we need by all means, at the risk of suffocating under the weight of a constantly accumulated stress.

Real experience out of the ordinary which disrupts our habits, an event sometimes conducive to delve us into stories and unknown adventures, the travel and to a lesser extent tourism invites or incites to break with the exhausting monotony of our worn out lifestyles. For some, that's for sure, the journey is the last resort to prevent suicide. For others, more numerous, it is the antidote - with an undeniable placebo effect - not to depress each morning every day of the passing year. Merely leaving, even in vacation time, is often a therapeutic procedure that we agree


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with, an act of faith so as to regain faith in oneself. Just for the latter, social security should meditate on the merits of paying valid but already potential patients by putting them on the road rather than paying for their drugs.

Is it not surprising to see the joy of life of Roma people, these so sedentary "travelers", yet pursued, hunted down, beaten and expelled at all the crossroads of highways? European governments should consult and hire Roma and other nomads, to help Europeans to rediscover common sense close to their home, the morals away from the putrid morals, briefly the taste of life including that under the constraints or crises, instead, our leaders buttressed behind an eurofortress will enlist, file and police them, as illustrated by the example of French politicians who follow and unfortunately resemble since at least a decade already...

FOR PLURAL VOYAGES, FACTORS OF DIVERSITY In all its forms, beautiful, rebellious and plural, the journey holds decidedly an

inexhaustible source of happiness which our contemporaries should consider if they do not want to fall down too quickly. The disoriented travelers stay for a while, like the "lost sailors" by Jean-Claude Izzo, like those long-term in the wake of the late Bernard Giraudeau, create ever more stranded passengers whose confusion has nothing to envy to some illegal travelers, with multiple destinies, who cross over ports, often stranded on sandy beaches or hanging on buoys.

As they say "the journey shapes the youth" it is also estimated that the conquest of elsewhere can not do without the quest of oneself. The quest is worth more than the conquest, we can also - and this is a good option - stay at home: for going (elsewhere) or emigrate (leave one’s father and country) is not an obligation but a choice, a desire, a need, an escape or a strategy. Rubbing to the world, everyone eventually forms, reforms, and unfortunately sometimes deforms, throughout one’s life. Sailors and religious people have understood it: to reveal, in fact, nothing better than to take to the sails. We release the ropes to pass a cape. A cape that you want to be that of good hope of course. The journey has always been a rite. There is no unharmed return of a good, fair or poor journey. Precisely, some people are so distorted by its use or intermediary, and the encounter with oneself can also be disastrous. The use of travel gives way to wear out the world, a world that is not any more similar to the image shaped by the trip. The fault lies with vanity but also with the exotic ... and with our childhood dreams and other colonial or neocolonial fantasies, relayed by a literature too sure of its origins, yesteryear Kiplings to neo-adventurers of the moment, but also from Marco Polo to Tintin ...

That said, the experience of travel opens not only the horizon but also expands the range of possibilities. It cultivates this field irrigating it both elsewhere and otherwise. It challenges our ways of thinking, being and doing. It invites us to undo more than doing so as to do it again tomorrow. It is a great laboratory to introduce other ways: ecological, philosophical, spiritual, economic, political as well. But an undertaken journey is primarily a journey into self. On the one hand, be it that the destination is the corner bistro or Mount Fuji in Japan , the outer journey hides badly the inner journey that underlies it, on the other hand and despite the agreed speech suitable for the tourism industry, it is not the Far that fascinates us but the Elsewhere. The former is usually an excuse to better reach the latter which, moreover, may be very close. If the far is indeed invited to our table and in our street, the elsewhere, continues to fascinate and intrigue, even if it is also just around us, here and now. Elsewhere here and vice versa.

WRITING AND JOURNEY, TO BETTER LIVE THE ENCOUNTER All travel as an out of the ordinary experience - which may even turn into an extraordinary

adventure - is a rich slice of life. Just look at the prolific literature of travelogues cluttering the shelves of some bookstores or households. Newspapers, stories and blogs lately, try to continue the adventure on the field in writing. If the ego is the center of this process, a genuine ritual that gives meaning to seasonal tribulations, the telling of "his" journey contributes significantly to perpetuate the spirit of travel in a (re) trivialized routine. The aspiring or experienced journey writers, are they

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first travelers or first writers? We remember the famous phrase of Nicolas Bouvier, expert on the subject: "It is often more profitable to read travelers who write than writers who travel". The recurrent debate is still not resolved, some and others settle on their position as they would encamp at the bottom of a volcano to conquer. That he starts writing or plunging into adventure, a traveler is above all concerned not to reduce his mobile condition to the state of a mere journey. If he does not like boundaries, the traveler may, however, be a limited being, sometimes he traces his journey as a guide follows his marked out route, like a rural policeman fences a field. The obsession of the purpose neglects the essential interest of the road. Yet it is by confusing we find the right direction, thanks to the mishap that the adventure keeps its power, and it is also by taking risks that we measure avoided trouble. Fortunately so, the journey enlightens more often than blinds. It lights the way of life of those who until then floundered on cross paths.

That educational journey distorts our view of happiness with the Other and Elsewhere, a too domesticated regard by our society (that of the dominant) and history (that of the winners). Leaving is not necessarily fleeing but refusing to be manipulated by a pre chewed, rigid, unilateral, national and even universal discourse. Leaving initially means preparing to relativize what we thought we knew, seeing with other eyes, seeing so that we later on know better. Coming back more hardened, both more armed and tolerant. Even if the period was very different at the beginning of the twentieth century, Elie Faure wrote: "I know why I left. To return. This is the most serious among all the reasons that compel us to leave what we love" With globalization, more than at the time - not so nice as at other times – of Elie Faure, the world of travel has evolved to the point of now leaving as to better return, or to remain "connected" day and night at the risk of being rather home - locked in a mental or identity jail or - even when located in the heart of Borneo or of the "9-3" brief in full rainforest or urban jungle. It is precisely there that travel demands and reveals a healthy letting go. A failover occurs suddenly, often critical and insightful: a traumatic/ or therapeutic shock that allows progress to one’s own path, and towards others.

Followers of a non- touristic journey - like nomads hunted everywhere – live the world’s space more than they occupy it. Space often determines the way of life. And even in the era of mobility, inhabiting helps to better know and accept than moving. A journey that would only imply moving would only interest the "3 Ms" which have so trashed the planet over the past centuries: Missionaries, Military, Merchants ... We no longer travel in 2010 as in the 1850s, 1950s or even in the 1990s: the digital age, the information revolution and that of transportation have changed the situation.

Bouvier, Chatwin or London, and others Kerouac, Theroux or David -Neel , but also Malaurie or Lévi- Strauss, would hardly use the same world habits as at their respective time. The anatomy of wandering as well as the call of the forest - the Bushmen’s fate in Africa, the Zo'é of Brazil, the Jarawa of India, the Roma in Europe, the forgotten or hunted Syrians, the undocumented and refugees everywhere, evidence with disgust in every corner of the earth, this ever more confiscated earth by the powerful – illustrating a way of being and thinking into disuse, endangered due to the lack of combatants, by dint of being beaten and fought by the dominant ideology : that of progress, growth, development, short of the destructive economism. The tropics have certainly never been so sad: sad, yes, but especially extinct for certain populations and regions. Tropics all suffering from a cancer which erodes the local before disturbing the global, where, in the surrounding indifference, the tragic intermingles with tragedy permanently.

In this context of general social disintegration where man (re) becomes a wolf to man, the journey prevails forging ahead, in escape, as a mobile territory of refuge. We leave to take refuge, the Chechen pursued by Putin’s militia as well as the French employee of France Telecom, who joins his club resort in Tunisia during the vacation-counted time (now as the illusory "Arab Spring" has gone out fashion, you can return to the "Club" ) ... Each in his own way, trying to survive . It makes you wonder why come to the world for the sole purpose if not to leave too soon? Just born, one is already fighting against a system that doesn’t run smoothly, to work best not to leave traces of vacuum of a too brief stay on planet Earth. Under raptors’ grievances of the liberal


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globalization, the fight for the sole right to exist is complicated as it can be attested, dramatically, by the Albanian babies conceived to serve the global sex industry, or more often the below age Kurdish, Chinese, Malian or Senegalese children, not to mention those Roma who wronged the system by not having a national territory or clear origin and, worse, did not even want one. We have forgotten lately the pioneering work of Gilles Deleuze or Pierre Clastres, yet deterritorialization as the stateless societies are not obsolete ideas, they are now irrigating the new areas of tomorrow, and even sometimes exotic play grounds of tourists in search of better living.

FOR THE SLOW TRAVEL VERSUS THE FAST TRIP Slowness, respect, ecology and decay "naturally" stand out to the attentive one to be guided

by common sense: that of a both green and open journey. Moreover, it is towards the East, with its spirituality and its too notorious unfathomable mysteries that tourists will often seek to move otherwise. It gives meaning to their lives, to their on-site nomadic marches and their political moves back home. Any real journey is first an intimate and inner journey.

A genuine austerity and forms of voluntary simplicity are essential to expect to access the essential. To deprive oneself to cut down but not to be ripped off ... Walking is definitely the best option to achieve this state of levitation and healing, of meditation and return to self too. In a philosophical essay on walking, Frédéric Gros points out that walking is not only a sport but above all "it is to be outside". In every sense of the word. Especially on foot or not, it is essential to prefer the essential to the urgency and being to having or seeming, to seek balance instead of control.

At a time when zapping turns out as a survival if not virtue model, the journey - not tourism, does not appeal to licensed investigators who occupy the space of geographical research and so susceptible to the lure of tourist liberalism - appears as one of the last opportunities where we can have appointments with others as with yourself. In this sense, the journey is the ultimate antidote to dehumanization, mercantilism or diving in the all-virtual, which monopolizes the sedentary of everywhere. Despite a fashion - necessarily seasonal - which dedicates all virtues to ethics, one perceives that in the broad area of leisure mobility, especially when it comes to masses and beaches, a high persistence of 'ticks" of a much desired ethical tourism, like green capitalism and its greenwashing trend. Ethics and rubbish somehow.

Here and there, the journey represents a radical but constructive way - without forgetting that before building, it is important to deconstruct - to rethink life, the world, politics. Decay, with autonomy and nomadism (and a fortiori the self-nomadism) have things to discuss as well as to mix with the journey. The fruits of these interactions and connections will give birth to other forms of innovative and alternative mobility, for which the preservation of human, cultural and natural environments will be respected and valued ... much more than through the arranged speech of tour operators and other official tourism bodies. But it will take political courage: a rare commodity in this era of bad weather ... Even if a real global warming in the political sphere is not completely excluded. In the meantime, a new type of migrant-travelers arise: the politically exiled, economic migrants, climate survivors, nuclear refugees, etc. It is not surprising, in this new context, that the last privileged tourists go in search of luxurious secluded islands of the world (but they are rare) and are moving toward original "products" where the term elite retains all its sense: weekend ski in Dubai or better space tourism to go and observe the earth from far away ... Is this not a confusing admission that future seems bleak on the blue planet? And for the destitute migrant as for the wealthy tourist capable of anything, the grass is always greener on the neighbor’s lawn. Except that for the two, the "neighbor" is not the same ...

More down to earth, the journey is it not more than a deferment on a planet infested with (rather quickly) so-called social networks but also equally and largely devoted to a company of unprecedented disneylandization? Standardization and globalization perform both a tough battle for coastal and cultural sites of the world, sometimes without even inviting to this struggle the indigenous encouraged to stay in their place. Or in their role of rather passive than active onlookers. Tourism, as a temporary or seasonal recreational activity, has returned in your lives

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delivered to work, play spaces, dream return to childhood but also war images. Tourism has long been perceived - and continues to be - as a temporary liberation. Get free time from work, go for a moment to the beach, enjoy family finally reunited rather than colleagues and boss. In this sense, the souvenir industry allowed to extend the holiday once returned to the factory or business company. Similarly, the fact of returning tanned back at one’s place of work or a family reunion attested effectively the holiday summer travel in general. And the tanned skin undertook as a tattoo or an (enough) sustainable souvenir attached to the skin. Over time and with the increase in paid leave, the cult of the body will gradually be replaced by a genuine culture of the body. The history of mobility, in turn, is a reflection of our relationship with the world, with others as with ourselves. The double fantasy now very popular in the West is to be both tourist at home and native to the other’s home. A ubiquitous difficult gift to achieve when we should not forget to live. And still be standing because it is, at all costs, refusing to live on your knees.

To finish and continue discussions started here on the meaning of our seasonal holiday travels, we should meditate on these words of Bernard Giraudeau reminding us the essential: "A journey is a springboard to the imagination that feeds each of us, and not only offers us the unexpected of others, but also of oneself". A self that always aims to become "other" but never to become "the Other". Merge without merging. This is just the challenge we must address ourselves to really succeed to pass the cape of good hope - hope makes us live they say! - or surpass the storms - because our time is more tumultuous than ever ... This "self-nomade" option conducive to an authentic "live better together" ultimately rests on three key words here briefly decrypted in this article: travel, otherness, exchanges.

REFERENCES Michel F. (2009), Routes, éloge de l’autonomadie-Une anthropologie du voyage, du nomadisme et de l’autonomie, Hors-

Collection, 2305, Rue de l’Université. Michel F. (2013), Du voyage et des hommes: Désirs d’ailleurs revisited, Livres du monde Michel F. (2011), Voyages pluriels; Echanges et mélanges, Livres du monde www.croiseedesroutes.com



GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN (2014) MUREŞULUI DEFILE. A HUMAN GEOGRAPHY STUDY

Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-631-8, 158 pages, 46 figures, 20 tabels, preface, summary in English language

The review of a scientific paper naturally starts with a quantitative component. In the case at hand, the author compiled a number of 158 pages, which include 153 pages of text, 46 figures, out of which 33 are maps or different types of charts, and also 13 photographs.

The book’s ending encompasses the Summary (p. 136-153) and the References (p. 154-158), while the book’s Contents, in Romanian as well as English, can be found in the opening (p. 5-7).

The book begins with a Preface (p. 9-10), by Prof. Nicolae CIANGĂ, PhD, from the Geography Faculty of Babeş-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca. The book’s structure accurately follows geographical logic, presenting the physical-geographic characteristics of Mureşului Defile (Topliţa-Deda Defile), opening with views on the concept of defile and then moving on to issues referring to Geographic location (1.2., p. 12-15), where several aspects regarding a more precise demarcation of the area are emphasized (mainly the eastern and western limits). Thus, the author states

that „...the defile actually extends between Vâgani (a component of the Town of Topliţa) and Bistra Mureşului. That is why, as long as there will be available information, I will also include these two settlements situated at both ends of the defile (that is Vâgani and Bistra Mureşului), which are part of other major relief forms (to the east, Topliţa - Giurgeului Depression, and its northern compartment, the Topliţa-Subcetate Plateau, while to the west, Deda, part of Reghinului Hills, and Vălenii de Mureş Depression (Deda-Porceşti Depression), which in turn are parts of the Transylvanian Depression” (p. 12).

Knowing these aspects, the books moves on to the integrated analysis of the geological genesis and structure of the area, which is dominated by the volcanic-sedimentary formation. Here, several small scale caves have been identified that are unique in Romania, with different

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origins, either due to alteration processes, or due to external factors (water and wind erosion), also known as „mould caves”. This chapter also comprises the relief’s distinctive features, which played a major role in the area’s population, characteristics presented with the help of a series of parameters such as relief energy and density, slope and exposition, with lasting effects on the social-economic component, as well as on land usage and capitalisation. Moreover, the climatic, hydrographic and biopedogeographic components are presented in the same detailed manner.

Chapter 2 of the book – Geodemographic specificities (p. 48-77), like any classic study, follows the same logic in emphasizing the main geodemographic components: the evolution of the number of inhabitants for more than a century and a half (161 years), territorial distribution of population, agricultural density, population dynamics (natural movement, migration patterns), population structures (gender, age groups, habitat, marital status, profession, ethnicity, religion, education level and political views), plus habitat characteristics (administrative-territorial evolution, typology of rural settlements, geographic toponymy, etc.), based on a rich table and cartographic material (17 tables, two charts, 13 graphs and four graphical representations of different settlement hearths from Mureşului Defile).

The next chapter, entitled The Specific Activities from Mureşului Defile (p. 93-132), is the longest, and in terms of presenting the above mentioned specificity, it follows the same scientific logic, opening with the primary sector, Land and agricultural activities (arable land and plant cultivation, pastures and hayfields, animal husbandry and animal products), Forests, Waters and other types of surfaces, Other primary activities, all excellently portrayed by the cartographic representation from page 99, (Fig. 42. Land usage in Mureşului Defile), followed by Industrial activities (Mining, Power industry, Wood processing, Mineral water bottling), continuing with the third component of chapter 4, which comprises tertiary activities (Transportation, Trade and commerce, Education, Culture and arts, closing with Medical services).

A more special attention was given to tourism, which, even though is in the primary offer stage, contains a multitude of natural touristic resources and sights (orographic, climatic, hydrographic, biogeographic, environmental) and man made (archeological, cultural-historical, economic, ethnographic, etc.), which can be included in a list of national and international areas of great attractivity.

The last chapter (5) tackles, from a practical standpoint, Views on Future Settlement Development, using a SWOT analysis, taking into account three major development directions (Infrastructure, Increasing economic competitivity, and Quality of life improvement).

The scientific content, the thoroughness and accuracy of the language are the things that recommend this book to researchers, local authorities and to everyone willing to know in detail the realities of this area.

Martin OLARU, PhD University of Oradea



GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN (2013) THE NORTHERN COMPONENT OF THE DEPRESSION ALIGNMENT

FROM THE EASTERN CARPATHIANS CENTRAL GROUP (DRĂGOIASA-GLODU-BILBOR-SECU-BORSEC-CORBU-TULGHEŞ)

Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-499-4, 510 pages, 110 figures, 44 tabels, preface, summary in English language

The book at hand represents the first human geography study of this geographic entity – Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş depression alignment.

It is the result of extensive field research, geographic inquiries, opinion polls, questionnaires, and a deep scientific documentation, which involved consulting a large number of studies, as one can see in the Reference section (277 titles and 10 websites), explicitly quoted in the book’s text, thus implying their actual reading. The theme of the book follows the tradition set by the Human Geography Department and by the Cluj-Napoca Geographic School, regarding the study of geographic entities, of social-economic and cultural spaces, highly representative for Romania.

This research set out to identify the specific favourability and restrictive components, as well as the phenomena that led to the population of the area and to the current configuration of the settlement network, its functional components, its demography, and culture, and to emphasize the characteristics of

the main pressure factor – population; the presentation of the specific activities from the three main sectors (primary, secondary, and tertiary) and pointing out types of landscapes and the social-economic development.

Special attention was given to field research, the author being born in these parts (Bilbor), -the foremost way of knowing the reality of Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş area, and the best method of obtaining the necessary information for a high quality protrayal of the area. The depth of the analysis is also visible in the manner in which the physical, human, and economic realities, as well

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as the specificity of the entire landscape are presented, all directly correlated to the particularities of the natural resources and conditions. Knowing the natural components of the area is of the utmost importance, as they have set Drăgoiasa-Tulgheş alignment apart. These components greatly influenced the development of economic functions, the network of settlements, the configuration of the transport network and the degree of habitation.

Thus, chapter III (p. 41-154) analyses the relief, as a determining factor in the population of the depression alignment; the hydrographic component, which directly influences the organisation of the settlement and transport networks; climate; the biopedogeographic components, which determine land usage and the type of economic activity, the conclusions mirroring the depth of the analysis, and the ability to select and correlate phenomena and processes.

Chapter IV (p. 155-296) presents the geographic-human prerequisites of anthropisation, where the population is the most dynamic component of this area and a pressure factor on the entire geographic system, and is based on the author’s ability to critically interpret scientific information, statistical data, as well as the large volume of information accumulated from field research. There is an emphasis not only on population evolution and dynamic factors, but also on population structure, the analysis of economic and demographic dependency, the average annual growth rate for the last 161 years, the migration and emmigration rates, etc.

One of the book’s fundamental chapters (chapter V, 297-453) examines the microregion’s economic dimmension, pointing out factors that influenced agriculture and industry, as well as forestry and transports. Starting from the need to include the area in the internal and international touristic circuit and the proper creation of spaces with touristic value, the author evaluates the area’s touristic resources, highlighting their richness, their uniqueness and originality, but also the necessity to preserve tradition and customs, architectural values, etc..

In the last chapter, the analytic and synthetic views amalgamates with valences of practical application when it comes to territorial planning and development, at a small (village) but also at a larger scale (the entire alignment), being a plea for environmental conservation and for rejuvenating traditional activities. The study contains a rich cartographic base, created with the help of GIS, all maps sharing a mutual core, and also photographic material, mostly captured by the author.

All of the above lead to the conclusion that this book brings several original contributions, mostly theoretical and methodological.

As a whole, this book by George-Bogdan TOFAN is a well rounded study of human geography, through which the author proves its competence as a researcher and his capability of tackling diverse issues in the field of geography, in general, and in the field of human geography, in particular.

Martin Olaru, PhD

Department of Geography Western University of Timişoara

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process, necessary for assessing the quality of scientific information, the relevance to the field, the appropriateness of scientific writing style, the compliance with the style and technical requirements of our journal etc. The referees are selected from the national and international members of the editorial and scientific board, as well as from other scholars or professional experts in the field. The referees assess the drafts of the articles, commenting and making recommendations. This process leads either to acceptation, recommendation for revision, or rejection of the assessed article. Editors reserve the right to make minor editorial changes to the submitted articles, including changes to grammar, punctuation and spelling, as well as article format, but no major alterations will be carried out without the author’s approval. Before being published, the author is sent the proof of the manuscript adjusted by editors. If major revisions are necessary, articles are returned to the author so that he/she should make the proper changes. Authors are notified by email about the status of the submitted articles in at most 3 months from the receiving date.

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GEOMORPHOSITES AS A VALUABLE RESOURCE FOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN A DEPRIVED AREA.THE CASE STUDY OF ANINA KARSTIC REGION (BANAT MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA)

Laurențiu ARTUGYAN 89 (Art#242101-651) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

USE OF LANDSAT TM FOR MAPPING LAND USE IN THE ENDORHEIC AREA - CASE OF GADAINE PLAIN (EASTERN ALGERIA)

Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALLA, Hadda DRIDDI 101 (Art#242102-654) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE BIOCLIMATE AND TREND OF GROWING SEASON IN THE EASTERN DANUBE DELTA AREAOVER 1951-2000 PERIOD

Daniela STRAT 108 (Art#242103-656) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RECENT TREND IN WILD LIFE IN THE BRAHAMPUTRA VALLEY OF ASSAM

Tongdi JAMIR, Kakheto SUMI, Akambo YEPTHO 117 (Art#242104-657) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LEADER: THEORY AND PRACTICE FROM HUNGARIAN POINT OF VIEW

Csaba PATKÓS, Csaba RUSZKAI, Gábor KOZMA 125 (Art#242105-659) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CROSS-BORDER PROJECTS – MEANS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT ALONGTHE ROMANIAN-HUNGARIAN BORDER

Cătălina-Maria BÂTEA (BOTA) 134 (Art#242106-660) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

COMPARISON OF NINE IMAGE CLASSIFICATION METHODS ON LANDSAT 7 IMAGERY

Victor STRÎMBU, Vlad STRÎMBU, Wesley PALMER, Jean GOURD 143 (Art#242107-661) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SYSTEMIC ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSFROM THE UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA

Iuliana Claudia BAIAS, Horia CARȚIȘ, Ștefan BAIAS 158 (Art#242108-665) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


George-Bogdan TOFAN, Adrian NIŢĂ, Ciprian NIMARĂ 166 (Art#242109-662) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

STUDY AND DIACHRONIC ANALYSIS OF CHANGES OF GROUND OCCUPATION IN AREA OF ORIENTAL AURES ALGERIA

Abdelhafid BOUZEKRI, Hassen BENMESSAOUD 180 (Art#242110-658) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

JOURNEYS, OTHERNESS, EXCHANGES

Michel FRANCK 190 (Art#242211-655) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Book review – MUREŞULUI DEFILE. A HUMAN GEOGRAPHY STUDY, Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-631-8, 158 pages, 46 figures, 20 tabels


Book review – THE NORTHERN COMPONENT OF THE DEPRESSION ALIGNMENT FROM THEEASTERN CARPATHIANS CENTRAL GROUP (DRĂGOIASA-GLODU-BILBOR-SECU-BORSEC-CORBU-TULGHEŞ), Cluj University Press, ISBN 978-973-595-499-4, 510 pages, 110 figures, 44 tabels


ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409

ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA Seria GEOGRAFIE

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