Binder 1

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Cuprins

1 Introducere În semiconductoare ............................. . . . . ... ... .. ............ 1

1-1 Structura atomului . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1-2 Semiconductoare, conductoare şi izolat oare ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 6 1-3 Legăturile covalente . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . .. . . ................ 10 1-4 Conducţia în semiconductoare .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1-5 Semiconductoare de tip n şi de tip p ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . 14 1-6 J onc�iunea pn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ........ . . ................. ............... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1-7 Polarizarea joncţiunii pn ......... . . . . .......... . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ....... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1-8 Caracteristicile curent-tensiune ale joncţiunii pn . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . .. . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 1-9 Dioda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 32

2 Aplicaţii ale diodelor ........... . ......... .................. ... ............................. 52

2-1 Redresoare mono-alternanţă . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ............................ . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2-2 Redresoare dublă alternanţă . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ................ 60 2-3 Filtre pentru surse de alimentare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . .......... . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . ........ 69 2-4 Limitatoare şi circuite de ax are cu diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2-5 Multiplicatoare de tensiune . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 87 2-6 Cataloage de diode ... . . . . . ........ . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . ................. . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ............ 90 2-7 Depanarea . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ..... . . .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 2-8 Aplicaţie practică ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 104

3 Diode de uz special.. .......... .................. ........ . . . ... . . . . . . .. . .. ... ... ... . .. ..... 123

3-1 Diode Zener ............... . . . ..................... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3-2 Aplicaţii ale diodei Zener ........ . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .... . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 133 3-3 Diode varactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 3-4 Diode optice ............ . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ...................... . . . .................................. ............... . . . .. . . . . . 148 3-5 Alte tipuri de diode . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 3-6 Depanare . . .. . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 3-7 Aplicaţie practică . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4 Tranzistoare bipolare cu joncţiuni.. . ............. ..... ....................... 186

4-1 Structura tranzistorului ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . .................... . . ...... . . .. . ..... . . . . 188 4-2 Principiul de funcţionare al tranzistorului . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 4-3 Caracteristicile şi parametrii tranzistorului . . . ......... . . . . .. . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 4-4 Funcţia de amplificare a tranzistorului . . . . . . . ........... . . . ... ............ . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

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4-5 Funcţia de comutare a tranzistorului ......... . .. .. . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . .. ....... . . . . . ...... . . .. 209 4-6 Încapsularea tranzistoarelor �i identificarea terminalelor ......... ........ .. . . . . ......... . .. . 214 4-7 Depanare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . 217 4-8 Aplicaţie practică ................. .................. . . . . . . . .. .......... .......... ......... .............. . ............ .... 225

5 Circuite de polarizare a tranzistoarelor ................ ................... 244

5-1 Punctul static de funcţionare . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 245 5-2 Polarizarea bazei de la V ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 252 5-3 Polarizarea emitorului din sursă de tensiune separată . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .... . . . . . . . 255 5-4 Polarizarea cu divizor rezistiv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261 5-5 Polarizarea cu reacţie în colector . . . ................. .. . . . . . .. ... ..... .. . . . . ....... ............. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 270 5-6 Depanare ....... . . . . ..... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ............................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 5-7 Aplicaţie practică . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . ....................... ................. . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

6 Amplificatoare de semnal mic cu tranzistoare bipolare ......... 2 99

6-1 Funcţionarea amplificatoarelor de semnal mic . . .. . . . . . ............. .... .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 300 6-2 Circuitele echivalente de c.a. ale tranzistorului .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 6-3 Amplificatoare cu emitorul comun . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . ....... . . 310 6-4 Amplificatoare cu colectorul comun ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . .. ... .. . . . . .. ............ .. 327 6-5 Amplificatoare cu baza comună ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .. 336 6-6 Amplificatoare cu mai multe etaje .... .......... . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. ... ...... .... . . ... .. . . . 340 6-7 Depanare ...... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 6-8 Aplicaţie practică ................ . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . ........ . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

1 Amplificatoare de putere ............................................................. 367

7-1 Amplificatoare în clasa A ........ . . . ........ . . .............................. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 7-2 Amplificatoare în contratimp în clasele B �i AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .................... 384 7-3 Amplificatoare în clasa C . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . .......... . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . 395 7-4 Depanare ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . .......... ... ..... ..... ..... ........... . ... .. .. .............. 403 7-5 Aplicaţie practică . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .................................................. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

8 Tranzistoarele cu efect de câmp şi polarizarea lor ............... 421

8-1 Tranzistorul cu efect de câmp cu poartă-joncţiune OFET) . . . . . . . . .. ... ....... . ......... . . . . . 423 8-2 Caracteristicile �i parametrii unui JFET . . ..... .. .. . . .... . . . . ...................... .. .... . ................ 425 8-3 Polarizarea dispozitivelor JFET . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. ............................. . . . 436 8-4 Tranzistorul cu efect de câmp de tip metal-oxid-semiconductor (MOSFET) .... 447 8-5 Caracteristicile �i parametrii unui MOSFET.. . . . . ................ ......................... ..... . . . . . .. 453 8-6 Polarizarea dispozitivelor MOSFET . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 8-7 Depanare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ................................. . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . ........... . . . . . . .. ....... . .. ... 463 8-8 Aplicaţie practică . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

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Cuprins • IX

cu efect de câmp (FET) .................................................................. 485

9-1 Funcţionarea amplificatoarelor de semnal mic cu FET . . .......... . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 9-2 Amplificarea cu FET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................... 491 9-3 Amplificatoare cu sursa comună . . .... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 9-4 Amplificatoare cu drena comună . . . . . ................................ . . . . . . . . ................................ 503 9-5 Amplificatoare cu poarta comună . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ..................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 506 9-6 Depanare .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 9-7 Aplicaţie practică ...................... . . . . . .. . . .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ 512

10 Răspunsul În frecvenţă al amplificatoarelor .......................... 530

10-1 Noţiuni generale ..................................... . . . ................................................................. 532 10-2 Decibelul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 535 10-3 Răspunsul amplificatoarelor la frecvenţe joase ........... . ........... ............................... 539 10-4 Capacitatea Miller .......................................................... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 10-5 Răspunsul amplificatoarelor la frecvenţe înalte ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . 557 10-6 Răspunsul global în frecvenţă al amplificatoarelor. . . . . . . . . . ......... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 564 10-7 Răspunsul în frecvenţă al amplificatoarelor cu FET ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 10-8 Răspunsul în frecvenţă al amplificatoarelor cu mai multe etaje . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . 576 10-9 Măsurarea răspunsului în frecvenţă .................... ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . 578 10-10 Aplicaţie practică . . . . . . . . .. . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ......................... .............. . . . .................. 583

11 Tiristoare şi alte dispozitive .................. ...................................... 598

11-1 Dioda Shockley ......................... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ 600 11-2 Tiristorul ................................................. . . . . . . . . ....................... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 605 11-3 Aplicaţii ale tiristoarelor . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ........................ . . . . . . . . . ....................................... 610 11-4 Tiristorul cu poartă dublă . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ............. . . . . . . .. . . .... 614 11-5 Diacul şi triacul .......................... . . . . . . . ....... . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................... 616 11-6 Tranzistorul unijoncţiune (TUJ) ...................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... ........... 621 11-7 Tranzistorul unijoncţiune programabil (TUP) ......................... . . . . . . . . . . .............. . . . . . . . 626 11-8 Fototranzistorul ................... . ......................... ...................................................... . ....... 628 11-9 Fototiristorul ............ . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... ........... . . . . . . .......... . . . . .................. 631 11-10 Cuploare optice ................... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .............................. . . . . . ...... . .............................. 632 11-11 Aplicaţie practică .......................... . . . . . ........................ . ........................................ ........ 636

12 Amplificatoare operaţionale .................................................. . . . . . 651

12-1 Prezentarea amplificatoarelor operaţionale ........... . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . ......... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 652 12-2 Amplificatorul diferenţia!.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ · ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 654 12-3 Parametrii AO .... . . . ................ . . ............... .............................................................. . . . . . . . 663 12-4 Reacţia negativă . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 12-5 Configuraţii cu AO cu reacţie negativă . . ................................................................. 672 12-6 Efectele reacţiei negative asupra impedanţelor AO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ . ........ 677

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12-l Compensarea curentului de polarizare şi a tensiunii de decalaj ......................... 685 12·8 Depanare ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................... 689 12·9 Aplica�ie practică···················:···················································································· 691

13 Răspunsul În frecvenţă, stabilitatea şi compensarea AO ... 709

13-1 Noţiuni generale ...................... . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 710 13-2 Răspunsul în buclă deschisă . . . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 13·3 Răspunsul în buclă închisă . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . ... . . . . . ........ . . .... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 13-4 Reaqia pozitivă şi stabilitatea . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . ...... . . . . ... . . . ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 721 13-5 Compensarea ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 13-6 Aplicaţie practică ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .... ................ . . . . . . . . . 735

14 Circuite funcţionale cu amplificatoare operaţionale ........... 750

14-1 Comparatoare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 14-2 Amplificatoare sumatoare ............................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 765 14-3 Circuite de integrare şi de derivare ........................ . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . ........ . 772 14-4 Depanare ..... . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................... .............. . . . . . . . . 779 14-5 Aplicaţie practică . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................... 784

15 Alte circuite cu amplificatoare operaţionale .......................... 802

15-1 Amplificatoare de măsură . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . ... . . . . . .............. . . . . . ...... . . .. . . . ....... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 15-2 Amplificatoare de izolare ............................................................................... . . . . ....... 809 15-3 Amplificatoare operaţionale de transconductanţă (AOT) . . . . . . . . . ........ : .................. 816 15-4 Amplificatoare logaritmice şi antilogaritmice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . ...... . . . ... . . . ............. . 823 15-5 Convertoare şi alte circuite cu AO .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 830 15-6 Aplicaţie practică ...................... ........... . . . . . . . ........... . . . . .......... ................ . . . . . . ................. 833

16 Filtre active ............................................ ............. .............................. 848

16-1 Răspunsurile tipurilor de filtre de bază ....................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . 849 16-2 Modelele de răspuns ale filtrelor . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 853 16-3 Filtre active trece-jos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . ..... ... . . . . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . .... . ... 857 16-4 Filtre active trece-sus ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . . .... . . . ........ . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ... . . . . ..... 861 16-5 Filtre active trece-bandă ... . . . . . . . ... . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . ......... . . . . 865 16-6 Filtre active opreşte-bandă ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871 16-l Măsurarea răspunsului filtrelor .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... 873 16-8 Aplica�ie practică ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . 875

17 Oscilatoare şi circuite PLL ............................... ............................ 888

11-1 Oscilatorul .............................................................. . . ............ . . . . ... . . . . . . ................ . . . . . . . . . . . 889 11·2 Principiile oscilatorului . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . ....... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ... . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . 890 11-3 Oscilatoare cu circuite de reacţie RC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ............ . . . . . . . . .. . . . .... ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 893 11-4 Oscilatoare cu circuite de reacţie LC. . ... . . ........ . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

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Cuprins • XI

11-5 Oscilatoare nesinusoidale . . . . ..................... . . . . . . . . .................. . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 909 17-6 Circuitul de temporizare 555 ca oscilator ......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . ..... 915 17-7 Circuitul PLL ................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... .......................................... . . 921 17-8 Aplicaţie practică . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ...................................... ......................... . . . . . . 925

18 Stabilizatoare de tensiune ........................................................... 938

18-1 Stabilizarea tensiunii ..... . . . . . . . . ......................... . . . .................. . . .. . . . ........ ........................ 939 18-2 Stabilizatoare serie elementare . . . . . . . . ............. . . . . . . . ..................................................... 942 18-3 Stabilizatoare paralel elementare ......... . . . . ............................................................. . . . 948 18-4 Stabilizatoare în comutaţie elementare . . . . ............... . . . . . ....................................... . . . . 952 18-5 Stabilizatoare de tensiune integrate . . . . ....................... . . . ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 960 18-6 Aplicaţii ale stabilizatoarelor de tensiune integrate . . . . . . . . . ..................................... 965 18-7 Aplicaţie practică ...... .............. ...... . . .................. ............ . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... 971

Anexe

A Tabel cu valorile standardizate ale rezistoarelor ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... . . . 984 B Deducerea câtorva formule ....... . . . . . . . ................. ............... . ....................................... 985 C Foi de catalog . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ........................ . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .......................... 998

Răspunsuri la testele de autoevaluare ................................................................. 1031 Răspunsuri la problemele cu numere impare ............... . . . . . . . . . ..... . . .. . .................. 1033 Glosar ......................................................................................................................... 1045 Index . . . . .... . . . ............ . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. ............. 1055

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