Distorsiunile cognitive sunt tendine de a gndi n anumite moduri care pot duce la abateri sistematice de la un standard de raionalitate sau judecat bun, i sunt adesea studiate n psihologie i economia comportamental.

Dei realitatea acestor prejudeci este confirmat de cercetare replicabile, exist de multe ori controverse cu privire la modul de clasificare a acestor distorsiuni (erori) sau cum s fie explicate. Unele sunt efecte ale regulilor de procesare a informaiilor (de exemplu, comenzi rapide mentale), numite euristice, care folosesc creierul pentru a lua decizii sau hotrri. Aceste efecte sunt denumite distorsiunilor cognitive. Erorile de judecat sau de decizii pot proveni, de asemenea, de la motivaie, cum ar fi atunci cnd credinele sunt distorsionate de iluzii. Unele distorsiuni au o varietate de explicaii cognitive ("reci") sau motivaionale ("calde"). Ambele efecte pot fi prezente n acelai timp.

Exist, de asemenea controverse dac unele dintre aceste distorsiuni sunt considerate cu adevrat iraionale sau dac duc la atitudini sau comportamente utile. De exemplu, atunci cnd cunosc alte persoane, oamenii au tendina de a pune ntrebri de conducere care par prtinitoare pentru a confirma ipotezele lor cu privire la persoana respectiv. Acest tip de confirmare prtinire a fost susinut pentru a fi un exemplu pentru aptitudinile sociale: un mod de a stabili o conexiune cu alte persoane.

Luarea deciziilor i distorsiunile comportamentale

Multe dintre aceste prejudeci afecteaza formarea convingerilor de afaceri i deciziilor economice, precum i comportamentul uman n general. Ele apar ca un rezultat replicabil pentru o condiie specific: atunci cnd se confrunt cu o situaie specific, abaterea de la ceea ce este n mod normal de ateptat poate fi caracterizat prin:

NumeDescriere

Efectul ambiguitiiTendina de a evita anumite opiuni care par necunoscute din lipsa informaiilor

Ancorare sau focalismTendia de a se baza prea mult sau a se ancora pe o trstura sau o parte de informaie cand se iau deciziile (n mod normal este vorba de prima parte de informaie care este aflat despre un anumit subiect)

Distorsiunea atenieiTendina ca percepia s fie afectat de gndurile curente.

Distorsiuni automatizateTendina de a depinde n mod excesiv de sisteme automatice care pot duce la informaii automate eronate n defavoarea deciziilor corecte

Disponibilitate euristicTendina de a supraestima probabilitatea de evenimente cu o mai mare "disponibilitate" n memorie, care poate fi influenat de ct de recente sunt amintirile sau ct de neobinuii sau ncrcai emoional pot fi decidenii

Disponibilitatea cascadUn proces de auto-armare n care o convingere colectiv ctig mai mult i mai plauzibil prin repetare crescnd a acesteia n discursul public (sau "repeta ceva destul de mult si va deveni realitate").

Efectele inverseCnd oamenii reacioneaz infirmnd probele prin consolidarea convingerile lor.

Efectul bandwagonTendina de a face (sau a crede) lucruri pentru c multe alte persoane fac (sau cred) aceleai lucruri. Are legtur cu gndirea de grup i comportamentul de turm

Rata de baz a erorii sau rata de baz a neglijrii Tendina de a ignora rata de baz a informatiilor (informaii generice i generale) i concentrarea pe anumite informaii (informaii referitoare doar la un anumit caz)

Erori de convingeriUn efect prin care evaluarea unei persoane cu privire la logica din spatele unui argument este distorsionat de credibilitatea concluziei

Eroarea punctului orbTendina de a ne vedea mai puin afectai de erori decat alte persoane, sau tendina de a considera c exist capacitatea de a identifica mai multe erori cognitive la alii dect la noi nine.

Efectul majoreteiTendina unor persoane de a parea mai atractive ntr-un grup fa de momentele cnd sunt izolate.

Eroarea susinerii alegerilorTendina de memora deciziile proprii ca fiind mai bune decat au fost n realitate

Iluzia grupurilorTendina de a supraestima importana tirajelor mici sau grupurilor n eantioane mari de date aleatoare (care reprezint modele fantom)

Eroarea confirmriiTendina de a cuta, interpreta, concentra i memora informaiile ntr-un mod care confirm preconcepiile decidentului.

Eroarea congrueneiTendina de a testa ipoteze exclusiv prin teste directe, n loc de testare posibile ipoteze alternative

Eroarea coroborriiTendina de a asuma c e mai probabil s existe anumite condiii speciale dect cele generale.

ConservatorismO anumit stare de spirit n care valorile ridicate i probabilitatea nalt sunt supraestimate n timp ce valori sczute i probabilitatea mic sunt subestimate

Conservatorism (Bayesian)Tendina de a revizui insuficient propriile convingerile atunci cnd sunt prezentate noi probe

Efectul de contrastmbuntirea sau reducerea stimulilor unei anumite percepii lui cnd este comparat cu un obiect recent observat n constrast.

Blestemul cunostinelorCnd persoanele bine informate au dificulti n a se gndi la probleme din perspectiva unor persoane mai puin informate.

Efectul Decoy Preferina pentru opiunea A sau B se schimb n favoarea opiunii B, atunci cnd opiunea C este prezentat, care este similar cu opiunea B, dar n niciun mod mai bun.

Efect DenumireTendina de a cheltui mai muli bani atunci cnd suma este exprimat n cantiti mici (de exemplu, monede), dect sume mari (de exemplu, facturi).

Eroarea de distincieTendina de a vedea dou opiuni mai diferit atunci cnd evaluarea lor se realizeaz simultan, dect atunci cnd evaluarea acestora se realizeaz separat.

Neglijarea durateiNeglijarea duratei unui episod n determinarea valorii sale

Decalaj empaticTendina de a subestima influena sau puterea sentimentelor, fie la sine fie la ceilali.

Efectul de dotareFaptul c oamenii cer de multe ori mult mai mult pentru a da unui obiect dect ar fi dispui s plteasc pentru a dobndi.

EsenialismClasificarea oamenilor i lucrurilor n funcie de natura lor esenial, n ciuda variaiilor.

Ateptare exageratPe baza estimrilor, lumea real se dovedete a fi mai puin sever dect ateptrile noastre

Eroarea ateptrilorThe tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectationsTendina de experimentatorii s cread, s certifice, i s publice date care coincid cu ateptrile lor pentru rezultatele unui experiment, i s nu cread, s aruncai coeficienii corespunztoari pentru datele care par s intre n conflict cu aceste ateptri.

Efect de focalizareTendina de a pune prea mult accent pe un aspect al unui eveniment.

Efectul de ncadrareDesenarea unor concluzii diferite dpe baza aceleai informaii, n funcie de modul n care sunt prezentate aceste informaii.

Iluzia frecveneiIluzia n care un cuvnt, un nume sau alt lucru care a intrat recent n atenia cuiva dintr-o dat pare s apar cu frecven improbabil la scurt timp dup aceea

Fixitate funcionalLimiteaz o persoan s foloseasc un obiect doar n modul n care este folosit in mod traditional.

Eroarea lui GamblerTendina de a gndi c probabilitile viitoare sunt modificate de evenimente trecute, cnd, n realitate, acestea sunt neschimbate. Rezultatele de la o conceptualizare eronat a legii numerelor mari .

Efectul greu-uorBazat pe un anumit nivel de dificultate al sarcinii, ncrederea n hotrrile este prea conservatoare i nu suficient de extrem

Eroarea retrospectivUneori numit efectul "Eu-tiu-tot"; tendina de a vedea evenimente din trecut ca fiind previzibil la momentul cnd aceste evenimente s-au ntmplat.

Efectul mass-media ostilTendina de a vedea un raport mass-media ca fiind eronat, din cauza propriilor opinii puternice de partizani.

Eroarea Hot-hand"Eroarea hot-hand" (de asemenea cunoscut sub numele de "fenomenul de mn fierbinte" sau "mna fierbinte") este convingerea eronat c o persoan care a experimentat succes are o sansa mai mare de succes n continuare n ncercri suplimentare.

Actualizarea hiperbolicScontarea este tendina oamenilor de a avea o preferin puternic pentru rezultatele imediate n raport cu cele ce pot aprea mai trziu. Actualizarea hiperbolic duce la alegeri, care sunt incompatibile cu timpul. De asemenea, este cunoscut i sub numele de eroare de prezent i este legate de incoeren dinamic

Efectul de victim identificabilTendina de a rspunde mai puternic la o singur persoan identificat la risc dect la un grup mare de persoane cu risc

Efectul IKEATendina oamenilor de a plasa o valoare disproporionat de mare pe obiecte pe care le-au asamblat ei nsui, cum ar fi mobilierul din IKEA , indiferent de calitatea rezultatului final.

Illusion of controlTendina de a supraestima propriul gradul de influen asupra altor evenimente externe

Iluzia de valadilitateConvingerea c informaiile ce urmeaz a fi dobndite genereaz date suplimentare relevante pentru previziuni, chiar i atunci cnd este evident c nu.

Illusory correlationInaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events.[48][49]

Impact biasThe tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.[50]

Information biasThe tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.[51]

Insensitivity to sample sizeThe tendency to under-expect variation in small samples

Irrational escalationThe phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Also known as the sunk cost fallacy.

Less-is-better effectThe tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly

Loss aversion"the disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it".[52](see alsoSunk cost effectsand endowment effect).

Mere exposure effectThe tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them.[53]

Money illusionThe tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.[54]

Moral credential effectThe tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.

Negativity effectThe tendency of people, when evaluating the causes of the behaviors of a person they dislike, to attribute their positive behaviors to the environment and their negative behaviors to the person's inherent nature.

Negativity biasPsychological phenomenon by which humans have a greaterrecallof unpleasant memories compared with positive memories.[55]

Neglect of probabilityThe tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.[56]

Normalcy biasThe refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.

Not invented hereAversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group. Related toIKEA effect.

Observer-expectancy effectWhen a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see alsosubject-expectancy effect).

Omission biasThe tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions).[57]

Optimism biasThe tendency to be over-optimistic, overestimating favorable and pleasing outcomes (see alsowishful thinking,valence effect,positive outcome bias).[58][59]

Ostrich effectIgnoring an obvious (negative) situation.

Outcome biasThe tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.

Overconfidence effectExcessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.[24][60][61][62]

PareidoliaA vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, theman in the moon, and hearing non-existenthidden messagesonrecords played in reverse.

Pessimism biasThe tendency for some people, especially those suffering fromdepression, to overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them.

Planning fallacyThe tendency to underestimate task-completion times.[50]

Post-purchase rationalizationThe tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a good value.

Pro-innovation biasThe tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and weaknesses.

Pseudocertainty effectThe tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.[63]

ReactanceThe urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice (see alsoReverse psychology).

Reactive devaluationDevaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.

Recency illusionThe illusion that a word or language usage is a recent innovation when it is in fact long-established (see alsofrequency illusion).

Restraint biasThe tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.

Rhyme as reason effectRhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense's use of the phrase "If the gloves don't fit, then you must acquit."

Risk compensation/ Peltzman effectThe tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.

Selective perceptionThe tendency for expectations to affect perception.

Semmelweis reflexThe tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.[28]

Social comparison biasThe tendency, when making hiring decisions, to favour potential candidates who don't compete with one's own particular strengths.[64]

Social desirability biasThe tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in one self and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours.[65]

Status quo biasThe tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also loss aversion, endowment effect, and system justification).[66][67]

StereotypingExpecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.

Subadditivity effectThe tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.[68]

Subjective validationPerception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.

Survivorship biasConcentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility.

Time-saving biasUnderestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed and overestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed.

Unit biasThe tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item. Strong effects on the consumption of food in particular.[69]

Well travelled road effectUnderestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.

Zero-risk biasPreference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.

Zero-sum heuristicIntuitively judging a situation to be zero-sum (i.e., that gains and losses are correlated). Derives from the zero-sum game ingame theory, where wins and losses sum to zero.[70][71]The frequency with which this bias occurs may be related to thesocial dominance orientationpersonality factor.