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The influence of the absence of fathers and the

timing of separation on anxiety and self-esteem of

adolescents: a cross-sectional surveycch_1304 723..731

J. Luo,* L-G. Wang* and W-B. Gao*

*Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and

Chinese Postdoctoral Entrepreneurship Center, Zhongguancun Haidian Institute, Beijing, China

Accepted for publication 9 July 2011

Keywords

absence of fathers,

anxiety,self-esteem,

timing of separation

Correspondence:

Wen-Bin Gao, Centerof Mental Health of

Promotion, Institute of

Psychology, Chinese

Academy of Science,

Datun Road 4, Chaoyang

District, Beijing 100101,

China

E-mail:

[email protected]

Abstract

Background Many rural children in China have been experiencing life without fathers since the1990s, when their fathers left the rural areas for the urban areas to find a job that would allow them

to continue to support their family. However, to date, knowledge and understanding of the effects

of the absence of fathers and timing of separation on the mental health of adolescents are limited.

Methods A total of 2233 students, ranging in age from 11 to 23 years, from five provinces of China,

including 1024 adolescents who experienced the absence of their fathers, were recruited for this

study. The data were collected using State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale,

which were self-report questionnaires.

Results Findings from a structured questionnaire showed that the subjects who experienced life

without fathers have increased state-anxiety (t= -5.80, P< 0.001) and lower self-esteem (t = 39.54,

P< 0.001) when compared with other subjects, and the above results could be influenced by

gender and grade. A limited effect of the timing of separation was found on the mental health of

students whose fathers were absent. A significant timing group effect existed for state-anxiety

scores [F(3,992) = 2.26, P = 0.05], and post test also revealed that the self-esteem of female scores in

the 02 timing group was higher than other timing groups [F(3,992) = 4.58, P = 0.004].

Conclusion The influence of the absence of fathers on the anxiety and self-esteem of adolescents

seems to be more serious than our expectation, and the influence will be different according to the

timing of father absence.

Introduction

Patterns of family dynamics have changed dramatically in the

rural areas of China over the past two decades. Since the 1990s,

with the development of economy, a greater number of peasants

migrated from the countryside to urban areas looking for jobs

that were better paid. However, because of the hukou system

(Household Registration System), migrant workers and their

families who are not registered as official residents in the cities

are not entitled to subsidized housing, education, social security

or medical benefits (Wang & Murie 2000; Feng et al. 2002;

Aughinbaugh et al. 2005); therefore, most peasants have to leave

their children in their hometown when immigrating to metro-

politan areas. Children of migrant workers, known as the rural

left-behind children, are often taken care of by the paternal or

maternal elderly, first kin, or someone else from the extended

family. In most of these families, the father or both parents leave

their hometown to work because physically demanding jobs,

such as manual labour, factory work and service work are the

most prevalent types of work available. As a result, only 10.5%

bs_bs_banner Child: care, health and developmentOriginal Article doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01304.x

2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 723


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of Chinese rural left-behind children live with their fathers now

(Ye et al. 2008), and impressively, their fathers were usually

absent when they were very young, possibly even before they

were born.

In recent years, a lot of attention has been paid to the influ-ence that absence of fathers has on the mental health of chil-

dren. Previous studies showed that children, who lived in a

family with only a mother, could fare poorly across a wide

range of adolescent and adult outcomes, including poor

cognitive achievement (Amato & Keith 1991; Lang & Zagorsky

2001), behaviour problems (Cynthia & Sara 2004; Aughin-

baugh et al. 2005) and sexual identity difficulty (Fitzgerald

et al. 2003). Some studies agreed that the boys suffered from

father absence more (Lee 1995; Ge et al. 2006). Some conclu-

sions about the anxiety of children who experienced father

absence were obtrusive. Research indicated that the relation-

ship between fathers and their kids can predict the anxiety of

children more than the relationship between mothers and

their kids (Barrera & Jones 1992), and those children with

father absence had a higher probability of having an anxiety

disorder (Scarr & McCartney 1988). It was reported that the

anxiety level of children with father absence in the USA has

increased dramatically over the last 40 years (from 6% in 1960

to 24% in 2000) (Nock & Einolf 2008).

Moreover, anxiety is closely related to self-esteem for those

children who have experienced separation from a parent (Pot-

tinger 2005; Xue & Li 2007). Research has focused, to a large

extent, on trait-anxiety as a possible factor involved in harmingself-esteem (Sedikides et al. 2004), and low self-esteem has been

proposed as a reason for the association between insecure

attachment and anxiety (Lee & Hankin 2009). Others report

that adults who come from single-mother families have lower

self-esteem than adults who come from two-parent families

(McCormick & Kennedy 2000; Ge et al. 2006). However, there

was agreement that the influence of fathers on the self-esteem of

children could be negligible when compared with the mothers

influence (Amato & Keith 1991).

Indeed, many published studies have been conducted in dif-

ferent regions of China on emotion, behaviour, and personality

of the left-behind children and it is commonly thought that

these children have both higher anxiety (Liu et al. 2007) and

lower self-esteem levels (Hao & Cui 2007) than those children

who were kept with their nuclear family. Increasing numbers of

adolescents who have experienced parent absence are reaching

college age, and they have also shown higher anxiety and lower

self-esteem levels than their classmates in the university who

had both parents present (Li et al. 2009). However, none of

these studies made an explicit distinction between the families

where only the father left, only the mother left (even seldom) or

both parents left (Felner et al. 1975), nor did they differentiate

from the influence of separation timing on the mental health of

these children.

There are several reasons to believe that the timing of sepa-ration might be systematically associated with individual differ-

ences in childrens trajectories of adjustment (Hetherington

1992).However, the timing of father absence has been measured

mainly in the field of cognitive performance (Svanum et al.

1982), female pregnancy (Ellis et al. 2003), youth antisocial

behaviour (Grant 1989) and menarche (Maestripieri et al.

2004). Biller pointed out that the younger the kids were when

separated from their fathers, the worse their mental health

would be after growing up (Biller 1974, 1993). Unfortunately,

few studies focused on the timing of father absence and its

effects on anxiety and self-esteem.

Hypothesis of the present study

The current study aimed to explore the influence of father

absence on the anxiety and self-esteem levels of children and

adolescents with respect to the timing of separation. Just as

mentioned above, it is important to note that in China, the rural

father commonly has to work in the city for an entire year,

returning home only at the Chinese New Year. After the Spring

Festival, they have to go back to work in the cities, which means

that they spend on average only 12 weeks at home, and thenthe separation cycle is repeated. Moreover, there are still some

peasants who do not go back home for several years. The chil-

drens age when their fathers leave home could greatly vary

from birth to the teenage years.

As a result, father absence in the present study was defined as

a situation where a child, younger than 14 years old, lived

without their fathers for more than 6 months. The principal

hypotheses were:

1 The adolescents with father absence have higher anxiety and

lower self-esteem levels than the adolescents with consistent

father presence.

2 The adolescents with father absence have higher anxiety and

lower self-esteem levels than the adolescents with mother

presence.

3 The male adolescents with father absence have higher anxiety

and lower self-esteem than that of adolescents with father

presence and mother absence.

4 The younger the adolescents were when left behind by their

fathers, the higher the anxiety and the lower the self-esteem.

724 J. Luo et al.

2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Child: care, health and development, 38, 5,723731


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Methods

Participants

Participants are from the investigation project named Researchand Intervene to the Mental and Behavior Health of Peasant-

Workers Offspring. This project lasted from 2006 to 2010 and

includes eight national typical labour-export provinces and five

typical labour-import provinces, approximately 50 schools, and

almost 20,000 rural left-behind children. All research arrange-

ments are executed by the local government, and school func-

tionary belonged to this project, which is subsidized by the

China Association for Science and Technology.

Participants in the present study were recruited from 10

elementary and middle schools of four typical labour-export

provinces (Sichuan, Chongqing, Anhui and Guizhou) and one

university, where many students who experienced father

absence when they were young (in Hebei province) attend. Two

standards were established to warrant inclusion in the study: (1)

participants with father absence were looked after by their

mothers or their grandmothers/grandfathers (in Chinese rural

areas, generally, people lived with their family of origin, and

they took care of one another; however, some children with

father absence were taken care of by their uncles or aunts); (2)

although the separation of fathers and children was always

repeated, children could be recognized as the rural left-behind

children if their fathers had been absent for more than 6

months before the age of 14. The sample size was 2233, includ-ing 1024 students whose fathers were absent (students with

father absence, FAS), 190 whose mothers were absent (students

with mother absence, MAS) and 1019 students whose fathers

did not leave for work and stayed in the hometown (students

with father presence, FPS). In all, 996 participants were male,

while 1237 were female (Table 1).

Measures

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, which is a self-report assessment

that includes separate measures of state- and trait-anxiety. The

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory contains the routine 40 items,using Likert scale ratings, ranging from 1 (no, not at all) to 4

(yes, completely), as translated into Chinese in 1999. In the

present study, the coefficient value (a) of internal consistency

for state-anxiety was 0.83 among elementary school students,

0.87 among junior high school students (JHSS), 0.88 among

high school students and 0.90 among college students; the inter-

nal consistency coefficients for trait-anxiety were 0.78, 0.82, 0.84

and 0.84 among the four grades of students, respectively.

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1999) was translated into

Chinese in 1988, and consists of a 10-item, 4-point Likert-type

scale (1 = completely not true, 2 = not true, 3 = true, 4 =

completely true). The higher the score is, the higher the level of

self-esteem. In the present study, the internal consistency coef-

ficient was a = 0.76 among elementary school students, 0.77

among JHSS, 0.81 among senior high school students (SHSS)

and 0.85 among college students.

The participants demographics included name, age, grade,

nationality, parents education level, duration of separation,

frequency of parents coming back and connecting with their

children, the way of connection, etc.

Procedures

Data collection took place in classrooms during school hours.

The session began with an introduction to the project objectives

with emphasis on confidentiality. The data was analysed using

SPSS 17.0. First, State-Trait Anxiety, Self-Esteem Inventory

scores, and the participants demographic data were analysed

using descriptive statistical methods.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics and

timing of separation of participants: n (%)Pupil JHSS SHSS College Total

n % n % n % n % n %

Gender 291 544 351 1028 2214

Male 154 52.92 281 51.65 188 53.56 366 35.60 989 44.60

Female 137 47.08 263 48.35 163 46.44 662 64.40 1225 55.40

Group 291 544 351 1028 2214

Father-absent student 10 0 34.36 270 49.63 166 4 7.29 487 47.37 1023 46.21

Father-present stu dent 143 49.14 216 39.71 140 39.89 502 48.83 1001 45.21

Mother-absent student 48 16.49 58 10.66 45 12.82 39 3.79 190 8.58

Timing of father absence 100 270 166 487 1023

02 years old 21 21.00 28 10.37 12 7.23 79 16.22 140 13.69

36 years old 23 23.00 49 18.15 32 19.28 71 14.58 175 17.11

712 years old 56 56.00 156 57.78 67 40.36 125 25.67 404 39.49

13+ years old 0 37 13.70 55 33.13 212 43.53 304 29.72

JHSS, junior high school students; SHSS, senior high school students.

Father absence and anxiety/self-esteem of adolescents 725



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Regarding trait-anxiety, there was a significant group

gender effect, F(2,2190) = 3.37, P = 0.035, suggesting female

MAS group had higher trait-anxiety than all other groups of

female, and the scores of the trait-anxiety scale did not differ

between groups for male participants (Fig. 1b). Also, a signifi-

cant group gender grade effect was discovered for trait-

anxiety, and post hoc analyses per grade revealed that, in

participants of SHSS, a significant group gender effect was

presented, F(2,345) = 3.25, P= 0.039, but not in all other ones,

which indicated that the group differences of trait-anxiety wereinfluenced by gender in SHSS participants.

Finally, regarding self-esteem, a significant group grade

effect was found, F(6,2190) = 15.11, P< 0.001, and indicated

that FAS participants had lower self-esteem than all other

groups in JHSS and college grades, whereas no significant dif-

ferences between groups existed in another two grades (Fig. 1d).

MANOVA test within-group difference

The second test using the subset of database from FAS partici-

pants was executed to test the differences in the scales scores

between timing of father absence, gender, grades and the inter-

action effect of the above three factors. A statistically significant

association with the three scales scores was also found for

grades, timing grades, gender grades (Wilks k, F = 1.473

7.840, P-values ranged from


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the group with father absence, about 90% kids were cared for by

mothers alone). Also, compared with children with father pres-

ence and mother absence, the boys with father absence showed

higher state-anxiety. Some studies suggested that different

behaviours or attitudes of fathers compared with those of

mothers could promote child anxiety or could protect a child

from anxiety (Cabrera et al. 2000). Meanwhile, the present

study also showed that when anxiety is assessed, boys and girls

appeared to have similar responses to separation (Jekielek

1998).

Secondly, the main findings of the study showed that the

timing of father absence does affect the level of anxiety of chil-

dren at different ages. We found that the father absence event

appeared to be more emotionally dangerous if the father left

home between 7 and 12 years of childrens age, which is the

elementary period in China. In a longitudinal study, Flouri

and Buchanan (2003) demonstrated that father involvement,

reported by mothers in non-intact families during the ages of

07 years, had a stronger effect on adolescents behaviour and

emotional problems than mothers involvement, regardless of

whether mother involvement was low or high. At the same time,

the present study proved that father absence had a long-lasting

impact on the childs development (Lamb 1996). The studies by

Hetherington and Walker and McGraw revealed that the father

played a more important role in the emotional control and

regulation of children when compared with the mother and

other relatives (Hetherington 1979; Walker & McGraw 2000). In

China, children start school at 7 years old and are involved in

developing relationships with teachers and classmates beyond

their family members; therefore, the ill effects of father absence

were visibly displayed. This is perhaps an explanation for the

higher state-anxiety of children with father absence.

Figure 1. Anxiety and self-esteem comparing among three groups on the gender and grades. Mean state-anxiety scores across groups [students withfather absence (FAS), students with mother absence (MAS) and students with father presence (FPS)] for male and female participants were presented

in (a), and mean trait-anxiety scores in (b); Shown in (c) and (d) were respectively the scores of state-anxiety and self-esteem across groups in different

grades. *P< 0.05. JHSS, junior high school students; SHSS, senior high school students.

728 J. Luo et al.



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The current study is also the first to examine fathers influ-

ence on their childrens self-esteem using a relatively large

population. First, the findings showed that children who expe-

rienced the absence of their fathers had lower self-esteem. One

possible reason for this is poverty. Generally, the family

managed by only the mother is poorer. It has been reported

that the annual income of these peasant-workers was only

about 17 000 RMB (about $2600) (Ministry of Human

Resources and Social Security of the Peoples Republic of

China 2009). Research has consistently documented that

poverty alone has many detrimental effects on child develop-

ment and carries a greater risk of low self-esteem (Duncan

et al. 1994). The other reason was possibly low frequency of

interaction between fathers and their kids. The previous study

considered if the father was actively involved in their chil-

drens lives, the children would show higher self-esteem (Lamb

1996), especially girls (Elder et al. 1985). We did not find

gender differences as far as children with father absence were

concerned, but girls self-esteem was lower than the boys as a

whole in the present study, which is consistent with Larsen

and Busss findings (Larsen & Buss 2005).

Table 3. Main effects and interactive effects among timing of father absence, gender, grades to the anxiety and self-esteem

n

State-anxiety Trait-anxiety Self-esteem

M SD F P M SD F P M SD F P

Timing of father absence

02 years old 140 44.82 6.59 2.62 0.050 44.51 5.59 0.40 0.75 24.44 3.43 1.123 0.34236 years old 175 45.01 6.56 44.73 6.00 42.75 3.20

712 years old 404 45.38 6.71 44.18 6.09 24.46 3.39

13+ years old 304 44.02 6.01 44.42 5.39 24.86 2.89

Gender

Male 471 45.05 6.37 0.88 0.349 44.19 5.89 1.15 0.285 24.59 3.48 0.11 0.739

Female 553 44.66 6.57 44.58 5.73 24.66 3.00

Grades

Pupil 100 44.12 7.70 25.46


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Secondly, as indicated by the figures, we found that the timing

of father absence does relate to the level of self-esteem of chil-

dren of different ages. Middle school girls showed lower self-

esteem when father absence occurred before 2 years old in the

present study. Chubb and colleagues (1997) noted a decrease inself-esteem in adolescent females who experienced father

absence during the 9th through 12th grades. Although the

present research did not find a main difference between

genders, the interaction effects indicated that middle school

girls who experienced father absence before 2 years of age had

lower self-esteem. Other studies also showed that the relation-

ship between sons and their fathers during childhood/

adolescence was a sufficient predictor of self-esteem in

adulthood (Allen et al. 1994; Dick & Bronson 2005).

In fact, until recently, the role of the father was considered less

important than that of the mother. Fathers are now considered

just as important as mothers in the development and well-being

of children (Newman & Grauerholz 2002). Fathering is more

than a physical presence. Father absence seems to have unfor-

tunate effects on childhood and causes ongoing issues, not only

with cognition and behaviour, but also with emotions and the

self. Moreover, the absence of fathers and the feelings associated

with this type of familial occurrence was reportedly not able to

be overcome by the motherchild bond (East et al. 2006).

Limitation

One limit of this study was that it was based on a cross-sectionaldesign; therefore, the direction of associations between vari-

ables could not be determined. In addition, some factors such as

social economic status, major life events, relationships between

father and kids and mothers parenting style not well-controlled

are possibly some reasons for a lesser effect of timing of sepa-

ration. Mentionable, classification of timing of father absence

needs to be carefully planned in other regions with a different

child development schedule. Future studies will adopt longitu-

dinal designs and a large sample to better understand the issues

that were raised in the present report. In spite of these limita-

tions, our findings focused on a special, new kind of Chinese-

style father absence, and strongly emphasized the different

influence of the timing of father absence on the development of

children and adolescents.

Summary

The results of this study indicated that the father had a greater

influence on the state-anxiety and self-esteem of adolescents

than that of the mothers. The adolescents who experienced

father absence during ages 712 showed greater state-anxiety

than other groups, and the female adolescents who experienced

father absence between ages 02 showed lower self-esteem than

boys with similar experiences.

Key messages

Different guardians had different effects on the anxiety

level of children. Children who lived with only their

mothers showed higher anxiety levels than those children

cared for by both parents or by grandparents.

The boys with father absence showed higher state-anxiety.

The timing of father absence does affect the level of

anxiety of children at different ages. Father absence event

appeared to be more emotionally dangerous if the father

left home between 7 and 12 years of childrens age, whichis the elementary period in China.

Children who experienced the absence of their fathers had

lower self-esteem, but no gender difference.

The timing of father absence does relate to the level of

self-esteem of children of different ages. Middle school

girls showed lower self-esteem when father absence

occurred before 2 years old in the present study.

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