REVISTA DOCTORANZILOR ÎN ISTORIE VECHE ŞI ARHEOLOGIE ...

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REVISTA DOCTORANZILOR ÎN ISTORIE VECHE ŞI ARHEOLOGIE ReDIVA THE POSTGRADUATE JOURNAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY II/2014 CLUJ-NAPOCA 2014

Transcript of REVISTA DOCTORANZILOR ÎN ISTORIE VECHE ŞI ARHEOLOGIE ...

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REVISTA DOCTORANZILOR ÎN ISTORIE VECHE ŞI ARHEOLOGIE

ReDIVA

THE POSTGRADUATE JOURNAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY AND

ARCHAEOLOGY

II/2014

CLUJ-NAPOCA2014

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CONTENTS

STUDIES

Mariana Prociuc, Vlad codrea

Archaeozoology and palaeontology of the Subpiatră Cave (Bihor County, Romania) 11

AurorA PeţAn

An unknown stone structure in Sarmizegetusa Regia’s sacred zone recorded in writings of the 19th century 28

Mátyás BAjusz, AurorA PeţAn

Two bronze bracelets with looped and twisted ends from the notes of Téglás István 41

csaba szabó

Discovering the gods in Apulum: historiography and new perspectives 53

rAdu IustInIAn zăgreAnu, ClAudIu Ionuţ Iov

A Roman funerary stela from Porolissum 83

alexandra Teodor

The roman defensive system(s) of Tomis. Some issues in the light of the current knowledge 92

REVIEWS

Todd L. VanPool, Robert D. Leonard, Quantitative Analysis in Archaeology, Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. (lAurA-sIMonA drAşoveAn) 149

Luca-Paul Pupeză, Veacul întunecat al Daciei, Cluj-Napoca, 2012. (rAluCA-elIzA BătrînoIu) 153

Ioan Piso, Viorica Rusu-Bolindeţ, Rada Varga, Silvia Mustaţă, Ligia Ruscu (eds.), Scripta Classica. Radu Ardevan sexagenario dedicata, Cluj-Napoca, 2011. (AurorA PeţAn) 159

Rada Varga, The Peregrini of Roman Dacia (106-212), Cluj-Napoca, 2014. (cosMin coaTu) 167

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Discovering the goDs in Apulum: historiography anD new perspectives

Csaba SZABÓ PhD candidate, University of Pécs, HU

E-mail: [email protected]

abstract. The study of Roman religion in urban context has become a promoted topic of the Roman religious studies. Apulum, the biggest conurbation of the Roman province of Dacia has the richest archaeological heritage of this kind, the total number of the votive monuments being more than 600. Presenting the chronology, historiography and contextual analysis of this unique heritage, the article focuses on three aspects: methodological currents in historiography, the topography of the finds and the future perspectives of the research.

Keywords: Roman religion, urban religion, historiography, Apulum, Dacia

The conurbation of Apulum was one of the most important political and cultural centers of Roman Dacia in the period of 106-2711. With thousands of archaeological evidences known from the modern territory of Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár, Karlsberg), various aspects of Roman life were researched in details by Romanian and to some extent, by foreign scholars. Although a large part of the city’s archaeological heritage is related to its religious life – having the most significant repertory of this kind in Roman Dacia – there is no modern synthesis about the religious life of the city.

The author’s PhD thesis synthesizes for the first time in the Romanian historiography the religious life of Apulum; it is the first attempt of its kind, using a new, interdisciplinary approach, combining the methodology from religious studies

1 The conurbation consisted of the castrum of the XIII Gemina legion, possibly the canabae, the Colonia Aurelia Apulensis Chrysopolis and the Municipium Septimium Apulense, that later probably also became Colonia. Piso 2001, XXI, Protase 2010, p. 62.

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(Religionswissenschaft) with the approaches of the archaeology of religion (cognitive archaeology)2. In this study I will present the milestones of the historiography and research of Roman religion in Apulum, highlighting not only the main currents, discoveries and personalities but also presenting some topographic details of the sacred landscape of Apulum. I am also putting forward the approaches that recently appeared in the Romanian and international historiography on the topic.

Discovering roman religion in apulum: research history

From the beginnings till the 18th century

After 271, the XIII Gemina legion, the Roman elite of the city, and probably also the merchants suddenly left the conurbation of Apulum3. Although the history of the area is very hard to reconstruct for the 4th-10th centuries4, the few archaeological and literary sources show that the territory of the castrum and of the Colonia Nova Apulensis was already used in the 6th-9th centuries, later becoming

2 About the study of Roman religion in urban context and the methodological problems of Apulum see: Szabó 2014a.

3 About the controversial topic of Aurelian’s withdrawal see: Protase 2010, p. 263-271. Even if the withdrawal took longer than 1-2 years and affected only a part of the society, after 271 we can’t speak about urban culture in Apulum, the remaining population and the emerging groups consisting only temporary “inhabitants” of the ex- Roman city. Taking into account the short durability of the provincial architecture (many of the buildings being reconstructed even in the short 150 years of Roman occupation) we can presume that many of the Roman buildings – among them, the sanctuaries too – collapsed naturally even before the Hungarian conquest. About the natural collapse of the Roman ruins in Medieval times, see: Hinzen et al. 2012. Online. Last accessed: 19. 06. 2014. It is important to mention that the monumental architectural elements (columns for instance) are very poorly attested in the archaeological repertory of the city. Those must have been destroyed or reused even before the 15th century: Hampel 1911, p. 228-253.

4 The Late Roman and Early Medieval history of the city need to be reanalyzed, many of the archaeological materials being wrongly interpreted: Protase 2010, p. 670, Stanciu 2010, p. 830-834, Marcu-Istrate 2010, Marcu-Istrate 2014, p. 93-100.

4.1. Funerary evidence (see plan at Fig. 4)

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Belgrad, then Gyulafehérvár5. The construction of the first medieval fortress and the urbanization of the ex – territory of the castrum and the Colonia Nova have surely destroyed the remaining part of the Roman conurbation – many of the Roman stones being re-used for the first time6.

The rich archaeological heritage of the largest conurbation in Dacia aroused the interest of Transylvanian intellectuals from the beginning of the 15th century. The first research period (15th-18th centuries) deals mainly with collecting and describing the epigraphic sources, without any important notes about the “pagan” cults or the religious life of the Roman city – however, some authors’ accidental notes could give us topographical clues.

The first notable polymaths who collected and made important observations about Apulum’s Roman past were foreign and local humanists, such as Antonius Bonfini (1434-1503), who probably quoted in his monumental historical work (Rerum Ungaricum decades) a primal source accepted in the later historiography as the “Antiquissimus”7, used also by later, XVIth century authors (IDR III/5. 86, 198, 226, 303).

The next important scholar of the Transylvanian renaissance who collected Roman inscriptions – many of them being important epigraphic sources of the religious life in Apulum – was Mezerzius (Megyericsei János – 1470-1517), the “founder of the epigraphic studies in Dacia”8, who had collected an important amount of votive inscriptions (IDR III/5. 7, 8, 18, 21, 55, 58, 92, 96, 105, 171,174, 186, 191, 193, 195, 226, 228, 230, 254, 257, 261,275, 293, 294, 308, 313, 361, 365, 392, 441, 504, 599). Almost a quarter of the epigraphic corpus related to Apulum’s religious life was discovered by the scholars of the 15th-16th centuries (Mezerzius, Verantius, Bongarsius Zamosius,

5 About the etymology of Beográd-Fehérvár, see: Györffy 1983, p. 1116-1134.6 The Mongolian invasion in 1241 destroyed the Early Medieval city. We

can presume that many of the Roman ruins were also affected by this period: Katona 1981, p. 147, Moga 1987.

7 CIL III p. XXV. 153, apud Ferrarinus Regiensis. Bodor 1995, 57, Szabó 2013a, p. 28-30. About the medieval topography of the city and the first collectors see: Kovács 1992, p. 25-36, Kovács 1996, p. 191-201.

8 Ábel 1883, p. 373-383, Buday 1904, p. 309-310.

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Siglerius). Many of the altars were found in secondary position (especially embedded in the walls of the Saint Michael Cathedral, the medieval fortification and the chancellery9) but there is indirect literary evidence that Verantius (Verancsis Antal 1504-1573) saw temples and religious vestiges as well: “Deorum imortalibum, praesertim Mercurii, Apollinis et Jovi Optimi Maximi, quibus et domus mea spectabililor est, ut votive praetermittam simulacra... “10. Some of the pieces, such as the IDR III/5,100 had an adventurous history: Zamosius described in the 16th century that he also saw the statue of Hercules on its base. In the 17th century the base was used in the construction of the Martinuzzi palace, as many other altars discovered at that time in Apulum. Some of the votive inscriptions were already moved in Sibiu (Hermannstadt) in 1585, which clearly shows that the destruction of the sacred areas of the city had begun much earlier (IDR III/5, 199). A closer view on the first discovered votive monuments indicates that their provenience must be the territory of the castrum (aedes or fanum) and the Septimian city (IDR III/5, 79,108, 152, 185, 188, 365). Many of the inscriptions belonging to the cult of Nemesis were found in this time (IDR III/5, 293, 294), which could suggest a very early destruction of her sanctuary and the amphitheatre11. Similarly, the biggest buildings of the Colonia Aurelia Apulensis were already despoiled in the Renaissance period (IDR III/5, 1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 18, 21, 191, 238, 241, 242, 243).

In the 17th century, research is still based on epigraphic sources and collecting inscriptions, and is represented especially by the works of Opitius (Martin Opitz), the well-known poet12 (IDR III/5. 15, 42, 72, 160, 169, 188, 211, 233, 264, 340, 352, 356, 388, 397, 409, 410, 444.). Towards the end of the century, Luigi F. Marsigli (1658-1730) visited Karslburg (Gyulafehérvár) and collected some votive inscriptions (IDR III/5. 162). The first map of Alba Iulia (Pianta d’Alba Iulia) was made

9 Kovács 1992, p. 25-36. Their secondary position suggests, that the aedes of the principia and the sacred area of the Septimian city was plundered in medieval times, when the main buildings of the fortress were built or restored after 1241.

10 IDR I.38.11 Moga 1983, p. 81-88. The form of the amphitheatre is clearly visible on the

map of Visconti from 1711.12 Dăianu 1946, p. 374-385.

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also in this period13. Indirectly, by mentioning some votive inscriptions, the religious life of Apulum is noticed in the well-known monograph of that age, Memorabilia aliquot Transsylvaniae by M. Johannes Francisci or in the De Antiquis Transsylvaniae by Georgias Schochter.

Between 1715 and 1723 the famous Italian architect, Giuseppe Ariosti14 had collected a large amount of inscriptions, many of them being important sources of religious acts (IDR III/5. 5, 41, 62, 63, 81, 112, 124, 125, 133, 163, 177, 181, 196, 203, 204, 213, 216, 231, 251, 286, 298, 322, 328, 331, 348, 350, 354, 365, 378). He also mentioned a ruin of a Roman temple15, probably from the South part of the Septimian city, where a temple area dedicated to Oriental divinities was potentially located. It is quite possible that at the beginning of the 18th century some parts of the sacral area of Apulum were still visible in Partoş (Marospartos) or in the area of the Oriental sanctuaries, near the Septimian city.

The first work on the religiosity of Apulum was published by the German scholar Mathias Gesner in 1754, presenting the cult of Bonus Puer (Azisos) based on the rich epigraphic material of this cult, discovered much earlier in unknown places (fig. II)16.

Another important work of that age is the monumental synthesis of András Huszti appeared in Hungarian in 1791, about the ancient history of Transylvania (Ó- és új Dácia az Erdélynek régi és mostani állapotjáról való História). It used a great amount of ancient literary sources, but without mentioning the religious artefacts of Apulum.

At the end of the century, due to the massive Habsburg urbanization, the partially preserved Colonia Aurelia Apulensis was also severely affected17. In this time the salt office and the port of the city was rebuilt, which affected the sacred area of the Oriental sanctuaries in the Colonia18.

13 Kovács 1984, p. 45.14 Ariosti 2010.15 Ariosti ms 3, 36, IDR III/5. 354: “Nelle ruine d’un tempio nella detta Col.

Apulense, Carlsbourg”.16 Gesner 1754, p. 373-395.17 About the Habsburg layer of the Liber Pater sanctuary, see: Schäfer,

Diaconescu 1997, p. 198.18 Anghel, Suciu 2004, p. 367-386.

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Around 1785 the first monuments from a Mithraic sanctuary were discovered, the famous Mithras Tauroctonos dedicated by Secundinus (IDR III.5. 284 = Cimrm 1947-8) and a central relief with a large statue base (IDR III.5. 280-1 = Cimrm 1936-7) described for the first time by Antonius Bartalis (Ortus et Occasus imperii Romanorum in Dacia mediterranea. Posonii, 1787). The Mithraic statue was so famous at the time of its discovery, that Marcus Weinmann, the illustrator of Bartalis’ book, put it on the cover of his tome (fig. III.)19. It is quite possible that the pieces were found in situ in a mithraeum (no. 3, on fig. IV)20.

In 1790 several votive monuments were found (IDR III/5 30, 173, 301, 334)21. György Aranka (1737-1817) mentions a statue of a female, identified by him as a divinity. If they came from the same place, it could indicate an interesting material from a sanctuary.

On May the 15th, 1792 a small altar (IDR III/5, 49) with a relief was discovered somewhere between Partoş and the fortress, where the foundations of a possible sanctuary consecrated to Diana were standing adjacently to other stones and a fountain22. Today both the altar and the sanctuary have disappeared. In the same text, the famous linguist mentioned that the whole city was full of inscriptions, old stones and statues23.

19 Knapp 2005, p. 46. 20 Szabó 2013b, p. 45-65.21 Piso mentions that they were found in the fortress or near it (IDR III/5,

301 comments); however the first publisher of the inscriptions doesn’t mention this. Aranka 1796, p. 147-8. Aranka also mentions the 1783 discovery of a padimentum with mosaic and two “bull shaped statues” near Partoş, similar to those discovered in 1766 by Count András Hadik. All of the mosaics were sent to Wien. There is no further information about them.

22 Aranka 1796, p. 150. The author mentions that the excavation took place somewhere between the Partoş and the fortress, when people were looking for stones for the salt-bureau.. It is possible, that this fountain is the same with the one identified in the area of the Asklepeion.The size of the building is quite big (8 fathoms long and 4 fathoms wide = aprox. 15.2 x 7.6 m). Aranka – first time in the historiography of our region – describes the complete interiour and the finds of the sanctuary. Mommsen mentions that the altar was found „in aedibus salariis”

23 Aranka 1796, p. 147-151.

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A romantic era in archaeology: the 19th century

The 19th century was the most prolific one for the archaeology of Apulum, more than a half of the epigraphic database being discovered (or rediscovered) in this period. In this era the European historicism and the romantic affinity for archaeological excavations changed the historical landscape of Alba Iulia. In the first half of the century, the literary works of some scholars, such as Johann Mihael Ackner (1782-182), the collector Kemény József (1795- 1855)24, Johann Ferdinand Neigebaur (1783-1866), Wilhelm Henzen (1816-1887), Ignatius Rheinbold, Dionys Thalson or the “Nestor of the epigraphic studies”, Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903)25 marked the classical studies of Transylvania. Most of them studied in detail, for the first time, some votive pieces or phenomena from Apulum26. None of the mentioned scholars were specialists in Religionswissenschaft, the discipline itself being incipient at that time in the German speaking world. The shallow interest in Roman religious studies of the era is reflected in the bibliography of Károly Torma27, where more than 1300 titles referring to the history of Roman Dacia were mentioned, with few of them actually focusing on Apulum or the religious study of the city28. The collection of antiquities was facilitated by the creation of local collections, museums and associations.

On the 1st of May 1823 at Marospartos, five Roman stones were discovered, three of them being votive (IDR III/5, 19, 31, 363), probably belonging to the Asklepeion, whose exact location is still unknown29. Another altar from here was found in 1831 (IDR III/5, 20).

24 Bodor 1995, p.76. 25 About his contribution on the study of Roman Dacia see: Torma 1880, p.

54-55, Sanfelici 2010, p. 239-244.26 Henzen 1848, p. 21-22. 27 Torma 1880.28 Some notable articles from Torma’s repertorium regarding the religious

studies of Apulum before 1880: Hammer 1833, p. 87-94, Kállay 1840, p. 55-64. Lajárd 1837, p. 448-486, Seidl 1854, p. 239-240, Havasi 1865, p. 532, N.N. (Apulumi Mithras ábrázolat, ArchÉrt. I. 20.).

29 Hormayr 1823, p. 591, Crişan 1971, p. 341-346, Piso 2001, XIX. Pl. III, no. 20 or 22, Szabó 2004, p. 787-801. Hormayr mentions, that IDR III/5 19 and 363 were discovered in the same spot. The third could come from the same place. The different nature of the inscriptions found together with the two funeral monuments could indicate their secondary position. Piso mentions as find spot

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In 1836 Johannes Pauer from Marospartos discovered in his own garden a huge honorific inscription (IDR III/5, 425). Two years later, a votive inscription was found in the same place (IDR III/5, 364). In 1840, a Magna Mater altar was found in the garden (IDR III/5, 255). On the 6th of March, 1846 another altar was found dedicated to the Quadruuiae (IDR III/5, 310). The context and the exact place of this remarkable find is still not clarified30. Dionys Thalson, the garrison’s priest from Karlsburg discovered many inscriptions in Partoş and also inside the fortress31. On 12th June, 1847 he discovered at the brick yard at Partoş three Silvanus altars32. The place was not excavated.

Another remarkable discovery was made in 1852, when two altars dedicated to Mithras (IDR III/5, 272, 273), were unearthed together with a now lost fragmentary relief by “Pap Károly ship’s master in his own garden”33. Many of the pieces were found by Thalson inside of the fortress, under the territory of the castrum – such as the altar of Glycon discovered at 16th March, 1857 – that were probably already in secondary position (IDR III/5, 85)34.

A large amount of inscriptions were discovered in Partoş between 1865 – 1868, during the construction of the railway system (IDR III/5, 22, 45, 50, 122, 123, 136, 167, 168, 218, 245, 268, 277, 320, 389) practically crossing through the Colonia Aurelia Apulensis

Dealul Furcilor; however Hormayr speaks about the „Cameralgebäude” which was the salt office in Marospartos, the same place where Franciscus Kaftal made his discovery in 1785.

30 Piso mentions two totally different places for the garden of Pauer (Piso 2001, map no. III.3 and III.4.). The different nature of the inscriptions suggest that they could be placed in secondary position. Piso suggested, that other inscriptions – such as IDR III/5 356, 364, 367 – could be from the same place, some of them discovered already in the 17th century.

31 About his activity see: Wollmann 2009, p. 141.32 It is possible that another Silvanus altar discovered by Thalson in 1845

comes from the same spot. This would indicate the presence of a sanctuary at that place. Piso mentions at least three different places where Silvanus altars were discovered (pl. III 15, 21, 26) however none of the places are attested today. About the cult see: Dészpa 2012, p. 33-42.

33 Torma 1861-63, p. 134. The exact place of his garden is not located yet.34 Similarly, IDR III/5 107, 139, 260 discovered in 1861 at the Niedertor were

probably in their secondary position, one of the inscriptions being mentioned also by Ariosti.

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affecting also the so called Tăuşor lake area, which surely was a part of the extra muros sacred area of the Colonia (locus sacer - fig. IV, no. 7)35. Probably the currently excavated Liber Pater - Mithras sanctuaries were also affected by the construction of the railway (IDR III/5, 245, 268, 277).

In 1878 a very important discovery was made: three monumental altars dedicated to Serapis and Isis were found in the glacis of the fortress, probably in secondary position or excavated nearby (IDR III/5 317, 318, 319). It is still under debate, if they were erected in the Governor`s palace or in another place36.

The religious life of Apulum became a significant topic especially in the first monographs of the city. In his monograph37, Karl Gooss presents the religious life of the soldiers very briefly and superficially. Among the extensive epigraphic corpus, Neigebaur published in his work also some very interesting, votive monuments, today missing, such as a statue of a sitting Matronae38. A more detailed analysis can be found in the works of Pál Király concerning the city’s religious life39. The Hungarian scholar not only presents and describes the votive objects of the city, but also uses analogies from other provincial cities highlighting and using for the first time, the contemporary (comparative and positivist) method of the “Römische Religionswissenschaft”, widespread across Europe. Similar details about religion can be found in his monumental monograph about the province40. Király’s excavation in the mithraeum of Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa41 emphasized again the importance of the cult of Mithras in Dacia, attracting international interest as well. It was reflected in an important article by Franz Cumont about the

35 Rep. Alba 41, no. 22. Most of the altars were found in 1867, but there are no further informations where and how. Hirschfeld 1874, p. 392-394. The dedications of the altars are very diverse (Aeternus, IOM, IOMD, Mithras, Silvanus, Dis Deabusque, Diana) but it could serve as the material of a single temple. In 1892 another altar was found in this area (IDR III/5, 374).

36 Deac, Varga 2014.37 Gooss 1878.38 Neigebaur 1852.39 Király 1892, p. 335-369.40 Király 1894.41 Szabó 2014a.

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cult of Mithras in Dacia42, where the great Belgian scholar also mentioned, even though briefly, the famous Mithraic objects from Apulum. In addition, the complex reliefs from Apulum appeared in his monumental works as analogies43.

The 20th century

This period begins with grandiose archaeological excavations, revealing for the first time, systematically, a historical part of the ancient city. The excavations of Cserni Adalbert (1888-1908) in the governor’s palace (praetorium consularis) lay open to view the first methodically discovered votive monuments and cultic places of the ancient city. Even if the publication of the news regarding these objects was made in the spirit of the positivism44, detailing – as a premiere – the archaeological contexts as well, the religious aspects were neglected or wrongly interpreted. A case study of this period is the so – called “sanctuary of Epona”, its location being presumably in the area of the stables (IDR III 5/ 68, 69, 70, 71)45. The divinity now first appeared in the local historiography, described by Cserni using the methodology of descriptive positivism and comparative religion. He stated that “Epona was a Gallic goddess of horses, mules and donkeys”46; nevertheless he mentioned (without citing bibliographical sources) that more than 50 inscriptions of Epona are known from the Empire47. From the palace Cserni found other votive monuments as well (IDR III 5/ 90, 135, 266, 29548). His generation’s merit was that they realized the importance of the archaeological heritage of the city, starting systematic excavations, the extensive publishing of

42 Cumont 1893, p. 289-299.43 About his activity in Transylvania: Popescu 2000, p. 21-51.44 Cserni 1890, 21-46, Bolindeţ et al. 2011, p. 14-18.45 Cserni 1903, 136, Cserni 1908, p. 45-46, Piso 1994, p. 203-213,Timoc 1997,

p. 115-118, Pescaru, Alicu 2000, p. 158-160.46 Cserni 1908, p. 45. See also: Nemeti 2005, p. 158-162.47 A very important summary on the religious life of the city was written

by Cserni in the synthesis of the county: Cserni 1904. In this, he published also the first topographic map of the conurbation, being even today a reference for research.

48 Probably also IDR III/5, 140, 166, 263. See: Zefleanu 1943, p. 97, Piso 2001, pl. III.49.

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the finds in local and international journals and founding modern museology in this region. Some of the inscriptions – such as IDR III 5/206 – discovered in Partoş were published by various foreign authors, sparking international interest.

At the beginning of the century, some other inscriptions (IDR III 5/ 32, 35, 149, 357) were discovered at “Kutyamál” in Partoş49 or near the fortress, maybe coming from the Municipium Septimium (IDR III/5, 342)50.

In the first half of the 20th century the research on Apulum’s religious life reflects the general evolution of the discipline for the whole province. Two phenomena were outlined in this period: first, the increase of systematic excavations with the consequence of a quantitative rise of the in situ or at least, contextually discovered votive objects, and second, the appearance of the first specific articles, studies and synthesis about some cults or votive objects. However, it’s noteworthy that the political and ideological changes had influenced the historiographical narrative before and after 1948. The studies from this era reflect the current European tendencies and theories on Roman religious studies, but this process has slowed down in the second half of the century. Worth mentioning is that all of the religious studies and articles appeared in this period were either shortly descriptive or general studies, such as the monograph of Webber, Floca or the chapters of Daicoviciu in his great synthesis51. An important borderline in the archaeological research happened in 1916, when the intensive excavations of Cserni had finished suddenly by his early death52. If the next generation would have continued his work, the sacred topography of Apulum – and generally, the history of the Roman conurbation – would have been much better known.

Among the many accidental discoveries it is worth to mention that in 1910 two female heads were found, interpreted many times

49 This topographical reference appears many times in the XIX century. Its exact place however is not established on map (Piso mentions at IDR III/5 32, 35 and 357 three different points: pl. III 24, 32, 35.

50 This inscription was discovered on 19th April 1901 in the garden of Ion Rada.

51 In detail about the tendencies of historiography: Nemeti 2012, Szabó 2014b.52 Dreghiciu, Mircea 2006, p. 341-355.

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wrongly, as “Vesta” statuettes53. In 1912, on “Majorszőlőtelep” (Măierişte) in the garden of „Crişan”, a votive plate dedicated to IOM Sabasios was discovered (IDR III/5, 225)54. It is possible that the building to whom this monument belongs was in the Oriental, sacred area of the Municipium Septimium55. The archaeological „research” of the time was coordinated mainly by Ion Berciu, Enea Zefleanu and Virgil Cucuiu. Unfortunatelly, almost every altar or votive object discovered were made accidentaly by local inhabitants56. The same happened in 1924, when three altars dedicated to IOM were discovered in the garden of Vasile Zgâia in Partoş (IDR III/5, 127, 180, 189).57 In August, 1926, in the garden of Bozsó Mihály, a bronze statue of Sol was found (IDR III/5, 358)58. In the same year, in Partoş were found two altars dedicated by the famous Publius Aelius Antipater (IDR III/5, 210, 215)59 but the exact place and context of their discovery is not known. An altar of the Quadriviae was found in March, 1927 at the field of Vasile Pleşa60, but the exact context is still unknown (IDR III/5, 309). In November, 1929, two altars dedicated to IOM were discovered near the palace of the governor – this time with an exact location (IDR III/5,140, 166)61.

In 1930 in the garden of Oancea a possible mithraeum was revealed (Cimrm 1953), known today unanimously as the “mithraeum I.”, however it’s topography and the details of the discovery are still

53 Zefleanu 1947-1949, p. 175. 54 Macrea 1961, 64. His article is one of the few ones which deals in detail on

the general aspects of a cult, using international bibliography and analogies. Similar attempts would appear only in the 70’s from A. Popa and C. Băluţă.

55 See: Piso 2001, pl. III.35. Very close to Bulevardul Încoronării, where later the mithraeum, the Cimistenus, Silvanus and Dolichenus – Caelestis altars were found.

56 The only lararium of the province was also discovered accidentally in the 30’s somewhere in Partoş. Băluţă 2001, p. 193.

57 The exact place of the find is not known (see Piso 2001, Pl. III. 11.). A statue of Nemesis (IDR III/5, 297) was discovered in the same year in Partoş (probably on a different spot: Piso 2001, pl. III.4. – the same place, where J. Pauer`s garden was). About the Locus see: Szabó 2004, p. 787-801.

58 Zefleanu 1949, p. 170.59 Zefleanu 1943, p. 95-96.60 Zefleanu 1943, p. 100. See: Piso 2001, pl. III. 10.61 Zefleanu 1943, p. 97. See: Piso 2001, pl. III. 49.

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unclear62. Many votive objects were also found in the area of the Municipium (near Mihai Viteazul High School) collected by Virgil Cucuiu and Enea Zefleanu in the museum of the school (see: no. 8 on fig. V) 63.

In 1934 three altars, a votive relief and a statue of Juppiter were found in Partoş (IDR III/5 52, 144) in the garden of Gligor Sas64. Another important discovery was made on February 26th 1936, when at the so-called “Lăbuţ” place on the field of Ioan Popa, two votive columns dedicated to Deus Aeternus (IDR III/5, 25, 29) were found together with 200 lamps65. This surely indicates the presence of a sanctuary on that particular place66.

On the 20th of July 1945, at no. 50, Brătianu Street, similar findings emerged: a relief of a Genius nautarum, discovered by Pastiu Petru67. Many of the finds from the 20th century have a precise location, but unfortunately, few of them are linked to an in situ context.

On the 24th of July 1948, two altars (IDR III/5, 265, 314) were discovered in a contemporary cemetery in Straja and are good examples of the so called “wandering” stones and the reuse of Roman stonework by medieval and modern society68. It was also the first epigraphic source about M. Herennius Faustus69.

62 About the discovery, see: Christescu 1927-32, p. 620-621, Rep. Alba 40, no. 20, Szabó 2012, p. 70. The sanctuary appeared as the first sanctuary discovered in Apulum also in Vermaseren’s corpus, and later in Pintilie’s work. The author of these lines also suggested this hypothesis, naming the CIMRM 1953 as „mithraeum I.” in his M.A. thesis. Although the number of the finds suggests a mithareum, it is not clear if the monuments came from a sanctuary or from a secondary position.

63 Daicoviciu 1941, p. 305-309. See also: Cucuiu 1928, Zefleanu 1934. About the activity of Cucuiu: Berciu 1973, p. 901, Andronescu, Dăncilă 1999, p. 27-29.

64 See: Cucuiu 1934, p. 20-25, Piso 2001, pl. III. 14. Cucuiu speaks about the severe looting of the archaeological heritage by the locals and also about the numerous illegal excavations. In the same place was discovered in 1940 an altar dedicated to Sol (IDR III/5, 351).

65 Zefleanu 1943, p. 98, Opris 1981, p. 33. Cucuiu mentions in his raport that only 82 pieces were saved from the lamp deposit.

66 Piso 2001, XIX. pl. III, no. 13.67 Zefleanu 1949, p. 173-4.68 Berciu 1947-1949, p. 200.69 Today he appears on three altars from Apulum (IDR III/5, 265, 314, 708).

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In 1954, through the renovation of a building inside of the Vauban fortress an important clue was discovered, marking the exact place of the aedes principiorum (IDR III/5, 299)70.

In 1958, in the garden of Ion Drăghici, a unique altar of Isis was discovered in a Roman building (IDR III/5, 104)71, in the South part of the Colonia Aurelia Apulensis (no. 4 on fig. IV) It is still unknown whether this altar was marking the place of a sanctuary or if it was a sign of a private manifestation of the cult. Similarly, the discovery of the two famous IOM Cimistenus altars (IDR III/5, 208, 209) in 1961 near the Oancea mithraeum72 is very important in the delimitation of the sacral area of the city. The discoveries from the `50s and `60s in the Bulevardul Încoronării have shown us the existence of an Oriental area between the municipium and the colonia, where, in 1963 – quite near the mithraeum and the supposed Cimistenus sanctuary – an IOM Dolichenus altar (IDR III/5, 221) was found. Not far from this, in 1971, an altar dedicated to Yarhibol was found (IDR III/5, 102)73.

If the sporadic discoveries from the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th made the location of the Asklepeion just hypothetical, the discovery of several altars in the `70s (IDR III/5, 34, 36) made it a fact near the Tăuşor Lake74. In 1976, an imposing statue of Iupiter Tronans (no. inv: 7772) was discovered on the Cetăţii Street with a fragmentary altar (IDR III/5, 224) dedicated by a tubicenus75. This piece was also found in a mixed, pre-modern context disturbed by modifications done in the territory of the fortification. The statue was surely erected in the Capitoline Temple of the Septimian city (no. 10

70 See: Piso 2001, pl. III. 54. The building was recently „excavated” in 2011. No further details about the results were published. An altar dedicated to Magna Mater was also discovered nearby (IDR III/5, 360) but it could be in its secondary position.

71 Popa 1962, p. 147-150, Piso 2001, XIX. pl. III, no. 1.72 Berciu, Popa 1965, p. 168. Four altars of Silvanus and IOM were discovered

also in this street (IDR III/5, 129, 175, 321, 335) during this period.73 In front of the Church of of the Saint Hearth. Piso 2001, III. 48.74 Berciu, Băluţă 1972, p. 166, Piso 2001 pl. III. 17. See also: IDR III/5, 247.

About the identification of the Asklepeion and the so called “Locus” see: Szabó 2004, p. 787-801.

75 Băluţă 1978, p. 169-174, Piso 2001, XIX. pl. III. no. 35. See also: Piso et al. 2012, p. 123-124, Ota 2013, p. 65-67.

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on fig. V.). Beyond some important discoveries and their publication mainly in local journals, in the 1970 – 80s there were some tendencies for a synthesis of the city`s religious life, especially in the work of Alexandru Popa76.

Although the number of the discovered inscriptions and sculptural artifacts were less important in the second half of the century, the discovery of the shrine of Liber Pater in 1989 was a landmark in Roman religion research in Apulum77. The uniquely rich epigraphic (IDR III/5, 236, 237, 244, 370, 371)78, statuary79, ceramic, osteological and botanical80 material was analyzed by an international team during almost two decades. The case of the Liber Pater sanctuary – even if the monograph is still unpublished – was a positive one for the perspectives of future research serving as a model for the archaeology of the cult. The archaeological material was analyzed and partially published by an international team, many of whom were specialists in neglected or new areas of expertise in Romanian archaeology (votive pottery, archaeology of the favissae, Roman glass, archaeobotany).

An important discovery was made on the bank of the Mureş river in 1998 (IDR III/5, 700, 701, 706-712). Vasile Moga’s contribution to the religious studies of Apulum in the last two decades of the century was also very important (IDR III/5, 702).

Obviously, the publication of the III/5 volume of the Inscriptiones Daciae Romane by Ioan Piso with almost half a thousand votive inscriptions was a remarkable moment in Romanian research.81.

76 Popa 1973, p. 83-108.77 The discovery of the sacred area was a result of an intense field – work

trying to discover the vallum and the wall of Colonia Aurelia Apulensis: Diaconescu 2004, p. 87-142. About the wall, See also: IDR III/5, 325. Probably IDR III/5, 157, 311 and 386 were discovered also in a secondary position integrated in the wall. Piso 2001, pl. III. 11 and 15.

78 Piso 2001, pl. III, no. 19.79 Diaconescu 2001, p. 161-176.80 Ciută 2010, p. 185-199.81 The most significant source about religious life in Apulum is still

represented by the epigraphic corpus, due to the lack of systematically excavated sanctuaries.

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the recent state of research and future perspectives

After 2000, the research of the religious life of Apulum was still powerfully marked by the numerous publications regarding the Liber Pater shrine, dominating not only the Romanian, but – a premiere for a Roman sanctuary from Dacia – also the international research82. Many articles were published regarding the specific, local aspects of some deities or cults, especially that of the Lares83 or Mercurius84. The religious life of the city became a highly researched topic also by foreign authors85.

There are two new tendencies that had appeared in the last decade: the appearance of the highly popularized systematic and rescue excavations (the Porta Pretoria Dextra, the so called “Nemesis - Mithras” sanctuary86 or most recently, in the praetorium of the legionary camp87) and the application of new methodologies, rich analogies and comparative, interdisciplinary studies.88 It is noteworthy that after many years of ignorance regarding the topic, today two defixiones are known from the city, reopening the discussion on the presence of ancient magic in the society of Apulum89. Regarding the possible sources of early Christianity there is only one synthesis, which must be dealt with criticism90.

82 Byros 2011, p. 147-163. 83 Băluţă 2001, p. 193-198.84 Moga 2004, p. 253-258.85 Beutler 2004, p. 394-397, Fiedler, Höpken 2004, p. 510-516, Szabó 2004,

p. 787-801, Rossignol 2010, p. 363-390.86 Benea 2013, p. 119-126, Ciobanu 2013, p. 127-150. About detailed context

analysis see: Szabó 2014c.87 There is still no official publication of the excavation.88 The most recent summary of the religious life of the city: Ota 2012,

p. 90-120.89 Németh, Bounegru 2012, Moga 2008. p. 83-93 Revision of the text: Németh

2014, p. 311-313.The only amulet found in the territory of the Colonia was published many times, most recently: Nemeti 2013, 154, no. 22. The presence of a representation of Hekate and the possible Apulian provenience of the famous Hekate Triformis could indicate the importance of magical practices in Apulum.

90 Moga 2007.

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The intense activity of the local museum (temporary exhibitions on Roman religion91) also reflects a new tendency in research.

As a perspective for the archaeological research, it is important to mention the discovery of two possible sanctuaries or sacred areas: one in 2003 (no. 6 on fig. IV) and a mithareum in 2008 (no. 9 on fig. V.) 92 The excavation of these sites would be essential for understanding how ancient religion was lived, with cultic manifestations and local aspects. As the latest studies have proved93, the cult of Mithras played an important role in the religious life of Apulum, but despite the rich archaeological sources, Dacia is one of the few Roman provinces without systematically and recently excavated Mithras sanctuaries. The excavation of these buildings could also help improve the methods used to excavate, record and interpret Roman religion in Romania, and researching the cultic area in the Colonia is making a step further in this direction also representing a good opportunity to promote the archaeological heritage in a modern, interactive way.

The future of Roman religion studies in Apulum must be based on a new methodological framework, making use of the international tendencies (the reinterpretation of cognitive archaeology and archaeology of religion, focusing on the individual as an important religious agent)94 but also of the specific local aspects and case studies.

conclusions

The religious life of Apulum, as a research topic – indirectly – has a very long, more than five centuries old historiography. From the rediscovery of the first votive inscriptions in the age of Mathias Corvinus to the recent discovery of the Mithras sanctuaries, this field of research has evolved simultaneously with the increasing amount of sources. After a very long period of time, mainly consisting of

91 Moga et al. 2008, Bounegru, Ciobanu 2012.92 Szabó 2013, Diaconescu 2014, p. 91, Rustoiu 2014, p. 17.93 Szabó 2013c, p. 43-73.94 Rüpke 2012, p. 191-204.

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collecting and describing religious artifacts, in the 19th century there has been a change of paradigm: new articles appeared by local and foreign scholars about some of the most famous votive monuments and systematic excavations were carried out in the city. Although till the beginning of the romantic era, the majority of the authors were foreigners, at the end of the 19th century local historians began excavating systematically, in the spirit of the positivist historiography, thus appearing the first internationally cited studies. For the first time during this period, the religious life of Apulum has been the focus of some internationally known scholars. In the first half of the 19th century, the historiography was still based on the positivist, descriptive methodology. Few exceptions are known from this period, which used an interdisciplinary method, combining the local, descriptive method of archaeology and the traditional German methodology of Religionswissenschaft. During the communist regime the field of religious studies was marginalized. As a result, the number of excavations and articles decreased, without any remarkable change in the methodology. If the 19th century was marked by quite a notable synchronization with the international trends of Roman religious studies, the 20th century was characterized by a slow retrogression, or even stagnation. A starting point for the methodological change was the discovery of the Liber Pater sanctuary, the first systematically researched cultic place in Roman Dacia, where an international team used a highly evolved, interdisciplinary methodology. It also transformed the narrative of the local historiography.

The future of the study of Apulum’s religious life consists of new, systematic excavations and the application of the latest methods used in ancient studies (Altertumwissenschaft)95. In this study the author has presented not only the research history regarding the religious life of Apulum (focusing on the evolution of methodologies used in the interpretation of the archaeological data), but also the usage of some rare Hungarian sources. Trying to reconstruct the sacral topography of the city and exemplifying the main research trends,

95 Rüpke 2014, 22-35.See also: Sanctuary Project: http://www.uni-erfurt.de/max-weber-kolleg/projekte/kooperationsprojekte/sanctuary-project/. Last accessed: 25.06.2014.

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the article focused mainly on the epigraphic corpus (IDR III/5 and further corpora) which constitutes the most important part of the archaeological repertory of my thesis.

abbreviations

ActaMN Acta Musei NapocensisArchÉrt Archaeológiai Értesitő, BudapestATÉ Alsófehérmegyei Történeti, Régézeti és Természettudományi

Egylet Évkönyve, GyulafehérvárATS Acta Terrae SeptemcastrensisAVT Herepei Károly (ed.), Alsófehér vármegye története.

Budapest, 1904.CCAR Cronica Cercetărilor Arheologice din RomâniaCIL Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumCIMRM Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis

Mithriacae. Redigit: Marteen J. Vermaseren, The Hague, 1956-1960.

EphNap Ephemeris NapocensisIDR Inscriptiones Daciae RomanaeSAWW Sietzungberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der

Wissenschaften in Wien. Philos.-Historische Klasse, Vienne.

ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik

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Marcu-Istrate 2010

Daniela Marcu-Istrate, Erdély ezeréves püspöksége. A gyulafehérvári Szent Mihály székesegyház és püspöki palota régészeti kutatása 2000-2008, Budapest, 2010.

Marcu-Istrate 2014

Daniela Marcu-Istrate, Contribuţii arheologice la istoria catedralei romano-catolice din Alba Iulia, Transsylvania nostra. VIII, no. 30, 2014, p. 93-100.

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Moga 2007 Vasile Moga, Creştinismul la Apulum şi în teritoriul său, Alba Iulia, 2007.

Moga 2008 Vasile Moga, Consideratii asupra unor artefacte archeologice recuperate. Patrimonium Apulense 7-8, 2008, p. 83-93.

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Vasile Moga, George Bounegru, Radu Ciobanu, Mitologie şi iconografie la Apulum. Catalog de expoziţie, Alba Iulia, 2008.

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Johann Neigebaur, Dacien aus den Ueberersten des klassischen Altertums mit besonders Rücksicht auf Siebenbürgen, Kronstadt, 1852.

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Németh, Bounegru 2012

György Németh, George Bounegru, Cursing the Nomen, ZPE 184, 2013, p. 238-242.

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Adriana Rusu-Pescaru, Dorin Alicu, Templele romane din Dacia. I, Deva, 2000.

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Piso et al 2012 Ioan Piso, Felix Marcu, George Cupcea, Rada Varga, Ovidiu Ţentea, Das Kapitol von Sarmizegetusa, Dacia NS 56, 2012, p. 119-123.

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Popa 1962 Alexandru Popa, O nouă inscripţie închinată zeiţei Isis, la Apulum, SCIVA 13, 1962, p. 146-153.

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Aurel Rustoiu, Mariana Egri, Matthew McCarty, Constantin Inel, 6. Alba Iulia, punct: cartier de cetate. Cod sit: 1026.12, CCAR, Campania 2013, Oradea, 2014, p. 17.

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Alexandru Diaconescu, Alfred Schäfer, Das Liber-Pater-Heiligtum von Apulum (Dakien), in Hubert Cancik, Jörg Rüpke (eds.), Römische Religion und Provinzialreligion, Tübingen, 1997, p. 195-218.

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Szabó 2012 Csaba Szabó, Micro-regional Manifestation of a Private Cult. The Mithraic Community in Apulum, in Iulian Moga (ed.) Angels, demons and representations of Afterlife within the Jewish, Pagan and Christian Imagery. Antiqua et Mediaevalia, Iasi, 2012, p. 43-73.

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Károly Torma, Tizenkét római felirat Dáciából, Erdélyi Múzeum II, 1861-1863, p. 129-135.

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Volker Wollmann, Diaspora monumentelor arheologico-epigrafice din centre urbane şi militare ale Daciei Superior, Nemvs 7-8, 2009, p. 100-157.

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Enea Zefleanu, Note epigrafice din Apulum. II, Apulum 3, 1947-1949, p. 171-179.

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Figures

Fig. i. Chronology of the discoveries of votive finds from Apulum

Fig. ii. Johann Matthias Gesner (1691-1761) one of the first researchers of the votive monuments from Apulum

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Fig. iii. The first representation of a Mithraic statue statue from Apulum (Bartalis 1787)

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