Razboiul rece -ideologii si perspectiveRazboiul rece - ideologii si perspective 

Razboiul rece si bipolarizarea relatiilor internationale

a)     Definirea razboiului Rece ( termen initiat de Bernard Baruch consilierul lui Roosevelt si Wilson )

Razboiul rece a fost un conflict intre URSS si Statele Unite care a avut loc incepand cu mijlocul anilor’40 si s-a terminat la inceputul anilor 1990. Nu a existat o confruntare directa, fiind mai degraba o cursa continua pentru raspandirea dominatiei si influentei politice.Trei elemente au fost extrem de importante in ecuatia Razboiului Rece:

1. Dimensiunea ideologica: Democratie vs Totalitarism2. Dimensiunea psihologica: Jocul Nervilor3. Dimensiunea Militara: Cursa Inarmarilor

Din punct de vedere cronologic sunt cateva teze semnificiative:1. Yvan Vanden Berghe: razboiul rece incepe odata cu revolutia bolsevica2. Andre Fontaine: Inceputul in 1917 si sfarsitul in 19623. Teoria cea mai vehiculata ( sfarsitul celui de-al doilea razboi mondial- 1990) cu doua perioade

tensionate 1947-1953 si 1978-1980)

In legatura cu responsabilitatea si desfasurarea Razboiului Rece exista trei teorii:

I.                    Scoala ortodoxa: Scoala ortodoxa este de origine Americana si a fost rezultatul opiniei pulbice nemultumita de esecul aliantei din WW II, care a permis extinderea rapid a comunismului. Aceasta sustine vinovatia URSS datorita expansiunii sale in Estul Europei, in timp ce istoricii care combat aceasta teorie sustin ca Razboiul a inceput odata cu incercarile SUA de a bloca URSS in expansiunea sa. ( Arthur Shlesinger Jr.- “Origina of the Cold War” )

II.                   Scoala revizionista: apare la sfarsitul anilor ’60 pe fondul izbucnirii conflictului din Vietnam. Scoala revizionista sustine faptul ca Statele Unite a avut o politica imperialista si ca URSS nu a facut nimic altceva decat ar fi facut orice Mare Putere in zona rasariteana. Mai mult decat atat teoriile surprind faptul ca datorita capitalismului American aflat mereu in expansiune, nevoile acestuia nu puteau fi sustinute decat prin acapararea de noi teritorii. (William Appleman Williams – The tragedy of the American Diplomacy )

III.                Scoala postrevizionista: Aceasta vine si puncteaza deficientele ambelor teorii sustinand ca ambele state se fac vinovate de inceperea conflictului.

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b)    Inceputurile razboiului Rece

Intre 1945 si 1947 au existat o multitudine de ciocniri politice si diplomatice intre URSS si SUA. Totul a culminat cu bombardamentele nucleare asupra Japoniei, iar Stalin luand in calcul un pericol de asemenea anvergura a incurajat comunistii din tarile invecinate sa preia puterea pentru a proteja URSS.Inceputul a constat in doua telegrame, una trimisa de George Kennan diplomat American acreditat la Moscova in care ii acuza de razboi impotriva capitalismului, ca agresivitatea sovieticilor nu are sustinere in realitatea politica,lasand clar de inteles pozitia total opusa in care se situau SUA. Raspunsul vine in sept 1946 cand rusii ii acuza ca sunt presati de monopoluri economice pentru a declansa inarmari puternice tintind Victoria in cazul unui nou razboi.Alte elemente ce au condus la incordarea relatiilor;

A)     Discursul lui Churchill de la Missouri in care incuraja o alianta anglo-americana impotriova sovieticilor

B)      Doctrina Truman: Prin care americanii sprijineau financiar tarile care doreau sa iasa de sub jugul communist

C)      Planul Baruch: O comisie pentru controlul activitatii nucleare, plan respins de rusi.

c)     Criza GermanaCriza s-a delcansat odata cu capitularea Germaniei si pornirea discutiilor in legatura cu situatia politica post-belica. S-a cazut de acord ( plan acceptat cu bratele deschise de Franta si URSS) ca Germania sa nu fie federalizata ci divizata si impartita in sfere de influenta. In aprilie 1949 zona anglo-americana se transforma intr-o democratie parlamentara. Berlinul este diviziat in 4, partea democrata fiind o mica partea in arealul sovietic. Stalin dorea acapararea intregului Berlin astfel incat il izoleaza taind electricitatea, gazul. Printr-un pod aerian timp de un an, partea democrata a primit ajutoare din partea anglo-americanilor. In iunie 1949 sovieticii renunta la blocada in schimbul unei rediscutari a problemei.Consecintele crizei germane:

1.       Abandonarea doctrine Monroe ( izolationism ) in favoarea rezolutiei vandenberg2.       4 aprilie 1949 s-a creat NATO – pact anti-URSS3.       1955 s-a creat pactul de la Varsovia ca raspuns la NATO ( si la intrarea RFG in NATO )

d)    Razboiul din CoreeaAflata pana in 1945 sub dominatie Japonez, Coreea este eliberata si impartita de catre sovietici si americani. In 1948 se creeaza doua guverne pentru ca in 1950 sa se declanseze razboiul civil intre comunistii coreeni sustinuti de URSS si cei din Sud- conflict deschis de kim Ir Sen. Truman intervine pentru a impiedica implicarea lui Stalin directa ceea ar fi deschis poarta implicarii lui Stalin oriunde in lume.In Oct 1950 dupa interventia ONU in Coreea, comunistii chinezi sprijiniti de sovietici au ripostat ( 20k de chinezi ). Conflictul se incheie in 1953 dupa victorii alternative.Consecinte:

a)      Divizarea Koreei in NORDul communist si Sud.

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b)      Relansarea economiei americanec)       Sprijinul active al japonezilor pentru ONU a dus la retragerea trupelor Americane din zona

e)     Perioada Dezghetului

  In perioada lui Hrusciov ( 1952-1963 ) se resimte o relaxare intrucat URSS atinsese nivelul SUA in ceea ce proveste inarmarea si a constientizat ca are nevoie de liniste pentru a duce la bun sfarsit reformele. In 1955 se semneaza un tratat de neagresiune intre Pactul de la Varsovia si NATO atunci cand acestia se intalnisera sa discute problema Germaniei. Lucrurile se precipita odata cu evenimentele de la Budapesta.In 1959 are loc o noua tentative de destindere. Hrusciov, dorea o recunoastere a impartirii Europei in sfere ideologice ( dorea recunoasterea RDG). Merge s ail intalneasca pe Eisenhower si dup ace viziteaza Adunarea Generala a ONU stabileste o conferinta la varf ce trebuia sa aiba loc in mai 1960, dar care nu va mai avea loc odata cu doborarea unui avion American de recunoastere deasupra URSS.In iunie 1960 Hrusciov se retrage de la o conferinta de la Paris unde urma sa se discute problema RDG. In consecinta in 12-13 august guvernul RDG ridica Zidul Berlinului pentru a impiedica exodul oamenilor spre RFG.

f)      Criza rachetelor din CubaCriza rachetelor din Cuba a fost un conflict oprit din fasa si care a condus la o semi-normalizarea a relatiilor intre sovietici si americani. SUA au flat despre construirea unui amplasament pentru rachete in Cuba si l-a avertizat pe Hrusciov ca un atac cubanez va fi considerat un atac din partea URSS. Stiind de faptul ca spre Cuba fusesera transmise arme neconventionale si 40k de soldati, Hrusciov prin inetrmediul ambsadorului Dobrinin il anunta pe Kenedy ca e dispus sa renunte la proiectul cubanez daca americanii vor retrage rachetele din Turcia. Pe 28 octombrie Hrusciov anunta terminarea proiectului cu rachete offensive si la scurt timp Kenedy retrage bazele militare din SUA.

g)     Razboiul din VietnamS-a iscat dupa impartirea Vietnamului la Geneva in Nord ( comunistii lui Ho Si Min  ) si sudul democratic ( a lui Bao Dai ) apropiat de SUA. Johnson, presedintele Statelor Unite deschide atacul impotriva Nordului dupa atacarea unui distrugator American, dar si pentru ca nu dorea transformarea Vietnamului intr-o regiune complet comunizata.  Conflictul a furat pana in februarie 1973, atingand si Laosul si Cambodgia. Castigarea presidentiei de catre Nixon schimba datele problemei acesta fiind pentru o discutie cu blocul comunist motiv pentru care retrage trupele. Cei din sud nu abandoneaza dar in doi ani sunt invinsi si intregul Vietnam devine communist

h)    Dezghetul si Finalul razboiului receInceput in perioada lui Hrusciov, dezghetul va accelera odata cu venirea lui Henry Kissinger in fruntea diplomatiei Statelor Unite si a lui Brejnev la conducerea URSS. In iunie 1973 Brejnev semneaza cu Nixon la Washington o serie de acorduri de cooperare economica si tehnica.Accesul lui Gorbaciov la conducerea URSS in 1985 a insemnat un nou pas in directia incheierii razboiului rece mai ales datorita problemelor economice ale URSS care nu mai suportau si o

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cursa a inarmarilor. Au inceput discutiile pentru eliminarea armelor nucleare cu raza medie si lunga de actiune iar in 1987, un tratat bilateral a concretizat cele discutate. Anii 1989 si 1990 au condus la fdesfiintarea organismelor CAER si PActul de la Varsovia astfel ca ultimele impediemente in calea incheierii de facto al Razboiului Rece au fost eliminate. Charta de la Paris semnata de 34 de state a fost ultimul pas spre normalizarea relatiilor intre URSS si SUA

Comisia pentru Energie Atomică a Naţiunilor Unite (CEANU) Comisia pentru Energie Atomică a Naţiunilor Unite (CEANU) (United Nations Atomic Energy Commission) (UNAEC) este primul organism de negociere în problema dezarmării, creat de Adunarea Generală a Organizaţiei Naţiunilor Unite (ONU) la 24 ianuarie 1946. Sarcina principală a acestui organism era de a face recomandări şi propuneri în vederea eliminării armelor nucleare din arsenalele statelor. El trebuia să se ocupe, totodată, de toate problemele ce decurgeau din descoperirea energiei atomice. Proiectele de planuri prezentate în acest sens de Statele Unite şi URSS (planul Baruch, planul Gromiko etc.) în cadrul comisiei au fost succesiv respinse, aceasta ajungând în impas, la 11 ianuarie 1952. Adunarea Generală a ONU a hotărât dizolvarea CEANU.

Bernard Mannes Baruch (n. 1870 - d. 1965) a fost un om de afaceri american. A

reuşit să acumuleze o avere considerabilă înainte de a împlini 30 de ani, făcând

speculaţii financiare pe piaţa zahărului. În 1903 îşi înfiinţează propria firmă de

brokeraj, intitulată The Lone Wolf of Wall Street (Lupul Singuratic de pe Wall

Street), din cauză că refuza să se alăture vreunei companii de investiţii. Până în

1910 devenise cel mai cunoscut investitor de pe Wall Street.

Şi-a dedicat timpul pentru consilierea a doi preşedinţi americani, Woodrow Wilson

şi Franklin D. Roosevelt, în chestiuni de apărare naţională şi probleme economice.

În 1918 a devenit preşedintele War Industries Board, o agenţie de stat înfiinţată în

timpul primului război mondial pentru coordonarea achiziţiilor de resurse de

război. Sub conducerea sa, agenţia a reuşit să gestioneze economia americană într-

o perioadă dificilă, impunând companiilor standardizarea produselor pentru

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creşterea eficienţei, acest lucru ducând la creşterea producţiei industriale americane

cu 20% între 1917 şi 1919.

După încheierea primei conflagraţii mondiale, Baruch a susţinut înfiinţarea unei

agenţii mai puternice pentru gestionarea resurselor de război, avertizând că Statele

Unite trebuie să se pregătească pentru o posibilă nouă conflagraţie. În 1946 a fost

numit de preşedintele Harry Truman ca reprezentat al SUA în Comisia pentru

Energie Atomică a Organizaţiei Naţiunilor Unite, unde a prezentat planul Baruch,

care propunea colaborarea între naţiuni în privinţa energiei atomice în scopuri

paşnice şi distrugerea armamentelor nucleare.

Baruch a fost si un filantrop, contribuind major la iniţiativa primei doamne Eleanor

Roosevelt pentru construirea unor comunităţi în care să fie relocate familiile

minerilor ce intraseră în şomaj. Obişnuia să se plimbe şi să se odihnească pe

băncile din parcurile centrale din Washington D.C. şi New York, timp în care

dezbătea probleme guvernamentale cu trecătorii.

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Nuclear Testing Chronology

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.

Country1945-

491950-

591960-

691970-

791980-

891990-

992000-

092010-

Present Total

United   States 6 188 428 232 155 21 0 0 1,030

Russia/USSR 1 82 232 227 172 1 0 0 715

United   Kingdo m

0 21 5 5 12 2 0 0 45

France 0 0 31 69 92 18 0 0 210

China 0 0 10 16 7 10 0 0 43

India 0 0 0 1 0 6   0 7

Pakistan 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 6

North Korea 0 0 0 1 0 6 2 1 7

Totals 7 291 706 550 438 64 2 1 2,059

United States

First nuclear test: 1945Most recent nuclear test: 1992Total tests: 1,030 (815 underground)

The United States has conducted more tests than the rest of the world, and was the first and only country to use a nuclear weapon in wartime. The U.S. has signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, but it has not yet been ratified by the Senate.

Russia

First nuclear test: 1949Most recent nuclear test: 1990Total tests: 715 (496 underground)

Russia was the second nation in the world to conduct nuclear tests.

United Kingdom

First nuclear test: 1952Most recent nuclear test: 1991Total tests: 45 (24 underground)

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Britain tested its first nuclear weapon on Monte Bello Islands, Australia. Atmospheric tests were carried out there until 1956. Britain has ratified the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.

France

First nuclear test: 1960Most recent nuclear test: 1996Total tests: 210 (160 underground)

France conducted six controversial tests as recently as 1995-1996.

China

First nuclear test: 1964Most recent nuclear test: 1996Total tests: 43 (22 underground)

China is widely thought to be helping Pakistan with its nuclear efforts.

India

First nuclear test: 1974Most recent nuclear test: 1998Total tests: 7

In 1966, India declared it could produce nuclear weapons within 18 months. Eight years later, India tested a device of up to 15 kilotons and called the test a "peaceful nuclear explosion." In May 1998, India stunned the world when it conducted six underground nuclear tests in Pokharan, Rajasthan, and declared itself a nuclear state.

Pakistan

First nuclear test: 1998Most recent nuclear test: 1998Total tests: 6

In 1972, following its third war with India, Pakistan secretly decided to start a nuclear weapons program to match India's developing capability. Pakistan responded to India's nuclear tests in 1998 by announcing it exploded six underground devices in the Chagai region (close to its border with Iran).

North Korea

First nuclear test: 2006Most recent nuclear test: 2013Total tests: 3

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Nuclear Testing Locations

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.

LocationNumber of Test

s

Nevada Test Site, Nevada, USA 935Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan 496Russia 214Mururoa Atoll 175Enewetak Atoll 43China (Lop Nur) 41Christmas Island 30Bikini Atoll 23Algeria 17Johnston Island 12Australia 12Fangataufa Atoll 12India 4Pacific Ocean 4Malden Island 3South Atlantic Ocean 3Alaska, USA 3New Mexico , USA 3North Korea 3Pakistan 2Mississippi, USA 2Colorado, USA 2Ukraine 2Uzbekistan 2Turkmenistan 1Total 2,051

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Total Nuclear Testing Yields

From 1945 until 1998, there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide.

CountryAtmospheri

cUndergroun

dTotal Yields

China 21.9 1.5 23.4France 10.0 4.0 14.0India - 0.014-0.017 0.014-0.017Pakistan - 0.014-0.017 0.014-0.017North Korea - 0.010-0.036 0.010-0.036Russia/USSR 247.0 38.0 285.0United Kingdom

8.0 0.9 8.9

United States 141.0 38.0 179.0(in megatons) 427.9 ~82.428 ~510.328

Nuclear Warhead Stockpiles

The five acknowledged nuclear powers possess about 31,000 nuclear warheads.

Country 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000

United States 2 2,280 32,400

28,100 23,500 14,000 10,500

Russia/USSR 0 200 6,300 23,500 44,000 28,000 20,000

United Kingdom

0 10 310 350 300 300 185

France 0 0 32 188 359 500 450

China 0 0 5 185 426 400 450

Totals 2 2,490 39,047

52,323 68,585 43,200 31,535

Broken Arrows: Nuclear Weapons Accidents

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Since 1950, there have been 32 nuclear weapon accidents, known as "Broken Arrows." A Broken Arrow is defined as an unexpected event involving nuclear weapons that result in the accidental launching, firing, detonating, theft or loss of the weapon. To date, six nuclear weapons have been lost and never recovered.

1950s

Date: November 10, 1950Location: Quebec, Canada A B-50 jettisoned a Mark 4 bomb over the St. Lawrence River near Riviere-du-Loup, about 300 miles northeast of Montreal. The weapon's HE [high explosive] detonated on impact. Although lacking its essential plutonium core, the explosion did scatter nearly 100 pounds (45 kg) of uranium. The plane later landed safely at a U.S. Air Force base in Maine.

Date: March 10, 1956Location: Exact Location Unknown Carrying two nuclear capsules on a nonstop flight from MacDill Air Force Base near Tampa, Florida to an overseas base, a B-47 was reported missing. It failed to make contact with a tanker over the Mediterranean for a second refueling. No trace was ever found of the plane.

Date: July 27, 1956Location: Great Britain A B-47 bomber crashed into a nuclear weapons storage facility at the Lakenheath Air Base in Suffolk, England, during a training exercise. The nuclear weapons storage facility, known as an "igloo," contained three Mark 6 bombs. Preliminary exams by bomb disposal officers said it was a miracle that one Mark 6 with exposed detonators sheared didn't explode. The B-47's crew was killed.

Date: February 5, 1958Location: Off Georgia, United States In a simulated combat mission, a B-47 collided with an F-86 near Savannah, Georgia. After attempting to land at Hunter Air Force Base with the nuclear weapon onboard, the weapon was jettisoned over water. The plane later landed safely. A nuclear detonation was not possible since the nuclear capsule was not on board the aircraft. Subsequent searches failed to locate the weapon.

Date: February 28, 1958Location: Great Britain A B-47 based at the U.S. air base at Greenham Common, England, reportedly loaded with a nuclear weapon, caught fire and completely burned. In 1960, signs of high-level radioactive contamination were detected around the base by a group of scientists working at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE). The U.S. government has never confirmed whether the accident involved a nuclear warhead.

1960s

Date: January 24, 1961Location: North Carolina, United States While on airborne alert, a B-52 suffered structural failure of its right wing, resulting in the release of two nuclear weapons. One weapon landed safely with little damage. The second fell free and broke apart near the town of Goldsboro, North Carolina. Some of the uranium from that weapon could not be recovered. No radiological contamination was detectable in the area.

Date: July 4, 1961Location: North Sea A cooling system failed, contaminating crew members, missiles and some parts of a K-19 "Hotel"-

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class Soviet nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine off Norway. One of the sub's two reactors soared to 800 degrees Celsius and threatened to melt down the reactor's fuel rods. Several fatalities were reported.

Date: December 5, 1965Location: Pacific Ocean An A-4E Skyhawk attack aircraft loaded with one B43 nuclear weapon rolled off the deck of the USS Ticonderoga. Pilot, plane and weapon were never found.

Date: Mid-1960s (Date undetermined)Location: Kara SeaSoviet nuclear-powered icebreaker Lenin was forced to dump its reactors in the Kara Sea. Some accounts said the Lenin experienced a reactor meltdown.

Date: January 17, 1966Location: Palomares, Spain A B-52 carrying four nuclear weapons collided with a KC-135 during refueling operations and crashed near Palomares, Spain. One weapon was safely recovered on the ground and another from the sea, after extensive search and recovery efforts. The other two weapons hit land, resulting in detonation of their high explosives and the subsequent release of radioactive materials. Over 1,400 tons of soil was sent to an approved storage site.

Date: April 11, 1968Location: Pacific OceanA Soviet diesel-powered "Golf"-class ballistic missile submarine sank about 750 miles northwest of the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Reports say the submarine was carrying three nuclear-armed ballistic missiles, as well as several nuclear torpedoes. Part of the submarine was reportedly raised using the CIA's specially constructed "Glomar Explorer" deep-water salvage ship.

Date: November 1969Location: White SeaThe U.S. nuclear-powered submarine Gato reportedly collided with a Soviet submarine on November 14 or 15, 1969, near the entrance of the White Sea.

1970s

Date: April 12, 1970Location: Atlantic Ocean A Soviet "November"-class nuclear-powered attack submarine experienced an apparent nuclear propulsion problem in the Atlantic Ocean about 300 miles northwest of Spain. Although an attempt to attach a tow line from a Soviet bloc merchant ship; the submarine apparently sank, killing 52.

Date: November 22, 1975Location: Off Sicily, Italy The aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy and the cruiser USS Belknap collided in rough seas at night during exercises. Although it was declared as "a possible nuclear weapons accident," no subsequent nuclear contamination was discovered during the fire and rescue operations.

1980s

Date: October 3, 1986Location: Atlantic Ocean A Soviet "Yankee I"-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine suffered an explosion and fire in one of its missile tubes 480 miles east of Bermuda. The submarine sank while under tow on October 6 in 18,000 feet of water. Two nuclear reactors and approximately 34 nuclear weapons were on board.

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Date: April 7, 1989Location: Atlantic Ocean About 300 miles north of the Norwegian coast, the Komsomolets, a Soviet nuclear-powered attack submarine, caught fire and sank. The vessel's nuclear reactor, two nuclear-armed torpedoes, and 42 of the 69 crew members were lost.

Date: August 10, 1985Location: Near Vladivostok, Russia While at the Chazhma Bay repair facility, about 35 miles from Vladivostok, an "Echo"-class Soviet nuclear-powered submarine suffered a reactor explosion. The explosion released a cloud of radioactivity toward Vladivostok but did not reach the city. Ten officers were killed in the explosion.

1990s

Date: September 27, 1991Location: White Sea A missile launch malfunction occurred during a test launch on a "Typhoon"-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine.

Date: March 20, 1993Location: Barents Sea The U.S. nuclear-powered submarine Grayling collided with a Russian Delta III nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine. Both vessels reportedly suffered only minor damage.

Date: February 11, 1992Location: Barents Sea A collision between a CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) "Sierra"-class nuclear-powered attack submarine with the U.S. nuclear-powered attack submarine Baton Rouge. Both vessels reportedly suffered only minor damage. There is a dispute over the location of the incident in or outside Russian territorial waters.

2000s

Date: August 12, 2000Location: Barents Sea The CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) "Oscar II" class submarine, Kursk, sinks after a massive onboard explosion. Attempts to resuce the 118 men fail. It is thought that a torpedo failure caused the accident. Radiation levels are normal and the submarine had no nuclear weapons on board.

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1945 Truman's Message to Congress on the Atomic Bomb 1946 The Baruch Plan 1946 Atomic Energy Act 1946 Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech 1950 Niels Bohr's Open Letter to the United Nations 1953 Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace Speech 1962 Sec. of Defense McNamara's "No Cities" Speech 1963 Kennedy's Commencement Address at American University 1963 Kennedy's Address to the American People on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1967 Sec. of Defense McNamara's "Mutual Deterrence" Speech

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Developing the Hydrogen Bomb

Work on the Hydrogen Bomb began during the Manhattan Project, but not until the Soviet's exploded their first atomic bomb did efforts toward building the "Super" begin to take shape.

1948 Estimate of the Status of the Russian Atomic Energy Project 1949 Statement Announcing the First Soviet A-Bomb 1949 CIA Report of Surveillance 1949 General Advisory Committee's Majority and Minority Reports on Building the H-Bomb 1949 Strauss' Letter to President Truman 1950 Statement by the President on the Hydrogen Bomb

Arms Control Treaties

Below are brief summaries of the arms control treaties. Many have to complete text of the treaty available.

1959 Antarctic Treaty 1963 Hot Line Agreement 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty 1967 Outer Space Treaty 1967 Latin America Nuclear Free Zone Treaty 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1971 Seabed Treaty 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty I (Interim Agreement) 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty 1974 Vladivostok Agreement 1976 Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty 1977 Environmental Modification Convention 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II 1985 South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty - INF 1988 Ballistic Missile Launch Notification Agreement 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II 1996 Treaty of Pelindaba 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty

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2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism 2010 New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START)

Timeline of the Nuclear Age

1945January - First plutonium reprocessing begins at Hanford.January 20 - First uranium 235 separated at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.June 11 - The Franck Report is sent to Secretary of War Stimson.July 16 - U.S. explodes the world's first atomic bomb, the Trinity test, at Alamogordo, New Mexico.August 6 - Little Boy, an uranium bomb, was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. Between 80,000 - 140,000 people are killed.August 9 - Fat Man, a plutonium bomb, was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. About 74,000 people are killed.

1946June 14 - Bernard Baruch presents the Acheson-Lilienthal plan to internationalize the atomic energy. It is rejected by the U.S.S.R.June 30 - First subsurface detonation by U.S. is achieved at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific.July - Demonstrations are held in Times Square, New York, against nuclear testing.August 1 - President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act. Its purpose is to control the development and production of nuclear weapons and to direct the research and development of peaceful uses of nuclear energy.December 25 - The Soviet Union achieves its first nuclear chain reaction in Moscow.December 31 - Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) takes over nuclear weapons program from the Army.

1947January - The United Kingdom authorizes the development of nuclear weapons.June - Under the direction of William Penney, the UK begins design of its plutonium bomb.August - The United Kingdom builds its first atomic reactor.

1948April, May - U.S. conducts atomic tests at Eniwetok Atoll.

1949April 4 - NATO established.August 29 - Soviet Union detonates its first atomic bomb, Joe 1, at Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan. It is a copy of the Fat Man bomb and has a yield of 21 kilotons.October 30 - General Advisory Committee of the AEC recommends that the more powerful atomic bombs should be built rather than hydrogen bombs.

1950January 27 - Klaus Fuchs confesses that he gave atomic secrets to the Soviets while working at the Manhattan Project.January 31 - President Truman announces the decision to proceed with development of the hydrogen bomb.

1951January 27 - The first nuclear test occurs at the Nevada Test Site.June - First British nuclear reactor goes critical.Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted and sentenced to death for passing information on atomic weapons to the U.S.S.R.

1952September - A second U.S. nuclear weapons laboratory is established in Livermore, California.October 3 - First British atomic bomb, "Hurricane," was tested at Monte Bello Islands, Australia, with a yield of 25 kilotons.

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October 31 - U.S. explodes first thermonuclear or fusion device, "Mike," at Eniwetok Atoll. It had a yield of 10.4 megatons.

1953August 12 - First Soviet layer cake design bomb explods on a tower in Siberia. It was not a "true" hydrogen bomb.

1954March 1 - The first deliverable hydrogen bomb design is tested at Bikini Atoll. "BRAVO" has a yield of 14.8 megatons. Radioactive fallout affects local islanders and a nearby fishing boat.April 12 to May 6 - Hearings regarding Oppenheimer's loyalty cause him to lose his security clearance.September 30 - The USS Nautilus, the first American nuclear powered submarine, is launched.

1955The U.S.S.R. deploys two strategic bombers, Bear and Bison.The United Kingdom announces the decision to develop thermonuclear weapons.November 22 - The first true fusion device test is acheived by the Soviet Union; it has a yield of 1.6 megatons. The development is lead by Andrei Sakharov.

1957May 15 - First British H-bomb exploded at Christmas Island. The yield was between 200 - 300 kilotons. It was less than expected.July 29 - The United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency is created. The agency inspects nuclear reactors and plants to ensure they are being run for peaceful purposes.August 26 - The Soviet Union announces the successful launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile.September 19 - First underground nuclear test, "Rainier," occurs at the Nevada Test Site. It had a yield of 1.7 kilotons.November 8 - Britain's first truly successful thermonuclear bomb test. The bomb had a yield of 1.8 megatons.October - Fire destroys the core of a reactor at Britain's Windscale nuclear complex, sending clouds of radioactivity into the atmosphere.

1958July 2 - President Eisenhower signs amendments to the 1954 U.S. Atomic Energy Act which opened the way to a bilateral agreement between Britain and America on nuclear weapon design information.November 1958 to September 1961 - U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. observe an informal moratorium on nuclear tests.

1959June 9 - The first U.S. Polaris nuclear missile-capable submarine enters into service.October 31 - The U.S. deploys the first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), the Atlas D.

1960February 13 - The first French nuclear test occurs at Reganne, Algeria, in the Sahara Desert. It has a yield of 60-70 kilotons.July 20 - The United States submarine USS George Washington successfully launches a Polaris missile from underwater.November 15 - USS George Washington and its 16 Polaris A1s begin their first patrol.U.S. deploys the Atlas and Titan ICBMs.

1961February 1 - U.S. launches the Minuteman I missile.September 1 - U.S.S.R. resumes nuclear testing.September 15 - U.S. resumes nuclear testing.October 31 - U.S.S.R. explodes the world's largest nuclear bomb, with a yield of 58 megatons.

1962July 6 - Project Sedan, a Plowshare Program test, is conducted; formed a 1,280-foot diameter by 320 foot deep crater.July 8 - Electromagnetic pulse from high-altitude nuclear test turns off street lights in Oahu, Hawaii.October 16-28 - The Cuban Missile Crisis occurs. The closest the world has ever come to nuclear war.

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1963June 20 - The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the 'hot line' agreement.August 5 - Limited Test Ban Treaty signed by the U.S., U.S.S.R. and the U.K., prohibiting tests of nuclear devices in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater.

1964October 16 - China explodes its first atomic bomb at the Lop Nur test site. It was an uranium 235 implosion fission device named "596" and has a yield of 22 kilotons.

1966January 17 - U.S. B-52 bomber crashes near Palomares, Spain with four unarmed hydrogen bombs. All four bombs are recovered.September 24 - First French atomic bomb tested at Muruoa Atoll.U.S. Minuteman ICBM enters service.

1967January 27 - Outer Space Treaty bans nuclear weapons being placed on any celestial body, or in orbit around the Earth.February 14 - Treaty of Tlatelolco signed, creates a Latin America nuclear-weapons-free zone.June 17 - First hydrogen bomb test by the Chinese, with a yield of 3.3 megatons.

1968July 1 - Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for additional signatures.August 24 - France tests its first hydrogen bomb at Fangataufa Atoll in the South Pacific. It has a yield of 2.6 megatons.

1969March 14 - President Richard M. Nixon announces the decision to deploy a missile defense system called "Safeguard" to protect U.S. ICBM fields from attack.November to December - Preliminary Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) talks take place in Helsinki, Finland.

1970March 5 - Non-Proliferation Treaty enters into force; 100 nations ratify it by 1980.August 19 - U.S. deploys the first missile with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs).

1971March 30 - The first Poseidon submarine-launched ballistic missiles are introduced by the U.S.

1972May 26 - President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) and the Interim Agreement on Strategic Offensive Arms, in Moscow.November - SALT II treaty negotiations begin.

1974May 18 - India sets off a low-yield device (8 kilotons) under Rajasthan desert.July 3 - The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) is signed in Moscow. It limits nuclear test explosions to under 150 kilotons.November 24 - President Ford and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Vladivostok Accord, agreeing to limit the number of strategic launchers (2400) and MIRV launchers (1320).

1976March 31 - Threshold Test Ban Treaty enters into force.May 28 - President Gerald Ford and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Underground Nuclear Explosions for Peaceful Purposes (PNE) Treaty.

1977July 7 - United States successfully tests a neutron bomb. The primary lethal effects of a neutron bomb, also known as an enhanced-radiation weapon, come from the radiation damage caused by the neutrons it emits.

1978April 7 - United States cancels development of the Enhanced Radiation Weapon or neutron bomb.

1979

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March 28 - Three Mile Island Nuclear Power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, suffers a partial-core meltdown. Minimal radioactive material is released.June 18 - SALT II Treaty is signed in Vienna, Austria, by Brezhnev and President Carter.September 22 - A mysterious flash detected by a U.S. VELA satellite (that were deployed in support of the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963) is determined to be from a clandestine nuclear explosion. Originally, the Carter administration claims that the event was not the result of a nuclear test. However, it was revealed in 1993 that this event is from a South African nuclear test.December 26 - U.S.S.R. invades Afghanistan; SALT II Treaty removed from consideration from the U.S. Senate.

1980July 15 - The U.S. reports that the light signals recorded over the South Atlantic on September 22, 1979 are probably not from a nuclear explosion. However, information later would indicate that a low yield nuclear test did occur.

1981August 10 - President Reagan re-authorizes the production of the Enhanced Radiation Weapon or neutron bomb.June 7 - Israeli aircraft destroys Iraq's Osirak reactor. It is thought that it was producing materials for an Iraqi nuclear device.

1982June 29 - Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin in Geneva, Switzerland.

1983March 23 - President Ronald Reagan announces the United States will embark on an extensive research and development program to examine the feasibility of a missile defense program. The Strategic Defense Initiative is later dubbed "Star Wars."

1985The South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty - Multilateral agreement among the nations of the South Pacific is signed.August -The Soviet Union announces a nuclear testing moratorium.

1986April - Chernobyl nuclear reactor meltdown occurs in the Soviet Union. Massive amounts of radioactive material are released.November 28 - The 131st U.S. B-52 bomber is deployed, exceeding the 130 limit on strategic bombers, thus negating the SALT II Treaty.December - First 10 U.S. 'Peacekeeper' or MX ICBM become operational.

1987December 8 - President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. It eliminates all land-based missiles with ranges between 300-3,400 miles.

1988The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the Agreement on Notification of Missile Launches.

1989The first Trident SLBM is introduced into service.October 19 - The final Soviet underground nuclear test occurs at the Semipalatinsk testing site in Kazakhstan.November 9 - The Berlin Wall falls, as East Germany opens its borders with West Germany, marking the end of the Cold War.

1990June 1 - President Bush and President Gorbachev sign new protocols to the Threshold Test Ban treaty.September 25 - U.S. ratifies the Threshold Test Ban Treaty.September 27 - The last Pershing II missile is removed from West GermanyDecember 11 - The Threshold Test Ban Treaty enters into force.

1991July 31 - President Bush and President Gorbachev sign the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The Treaty calls for the elimination of almost 50 percent of the nuclear warheads carried by ballistic missiles.

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December 5 - Bush signs the Missile Defense Act of 1991, which mandates the Department of Defense develop a missile defense system.Communism falls across Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union is replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States (C.I.S.).

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