PROBLEME CONTROVERSATE DE MORFOLOGIE SI SINTAXA A LIMBII ENGLEZE

Alina Pana Obiective principale: Scopul urmarit de acest curs consta in perfectionarea si aprofundarea cunostintelor dobandite anterior de studenti in domeniul limbii engleze Trecerea in revista a principalelor puncte de reper in studiul categoriilor verbale, al tipologiei predicatiei si al complementatiei este insotita de aplicatii menite sa largeasca si sa imbogateasca competentele studentilor in performarea corecta a analizelor sintactico-morfologice utilizand un metalimbaj adecvat, sa le faciliteze accesul la un aparat teoretic-metodic util atat unui utilizator al limbii engleze cat si unui viitor cercetator in domeniul lingvisticii. Tematica Tematica prelegerilor este urmatoarea I) Morphology: Derivation vs. Inflection; Categories: Lexical categories vs. Functional categories.Verbal categories:Tense . Time reflected by tense. ; Tense: a deictic category.Time adverbials and tense inflections . Reichenbach's model (ST,RT,ET) The semantic description of the tenses of the Indicative II) Aspect:definition The main aspectual opposition.Situation-type aspect vs Grammatical aspect. Vendler's aspectual classification of VPs; Syntactic tests performed to identify the aspectual classes, Recategorizations undergone by the classes of VPs; the imperfective paradox III)Modality : definition. Ways of expressing modality in English. Defining criteria for modals. Deontic modality vs. Epistemic modality. Hoffman's disambiguating tests. The description of modal verbs .Mood :definition. The Indicative vs. the Subjunctive. Types of subjunctive.The distribution of the Subjunctive in independent and subordinate sentences IV)Predication. Structural and logico-semantic tasks . The syntactic property of transitivity. Copulative predication; Copula and Copula-like verbs; Typology of predicatives. V)Non copulative Intransitives. Simple intransitive verbs. Complex intransitives. Intransitivisation VI)Transitive predication. Syntactically simple transitives.Syntactically complex transitives VII)Complementation; Types of complement clauses; THAT clauses: transformations and patterns;The distribution of THAT clauses VIII)Infinitive clauses vs. THAT clauses. Characteristic features of Infinitive constructions. Changes undergone by the subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses; The distribution of Infinitive constructions, Classes of SSR and SOR triggers; IX)Gerundial clauses vs THAT clauses and Infinitive clauses. Types of Gerundial constructions. Transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses. The distribution of Gerundial Clauses. Gerund vs Infinitive. Gerund vs Participle

Bibliografie minima obligatorie: 1)Crainiceanu, I. -- Elements of English Morphology, Editura Fundatiei Romania de Maine, Bucuresti 2007 p.86-196 2) Dutescu- Coliban,T --Aspects of English Morphology , Editura Fundatiei Romania de Maine, Bucuresti 2000 p. 150-242 3)Leech,G --Meaning and the English Verb, Longman, London 1971 (available in the faculty library) 4)Serban, D --The Syntax of English Predications, Editura Fundatiei Romania de Maine, Bucuresti 2006 5)Serban. D, Hatagan,R and Moisescu,D --English Syntax Workbook -Editura Fundatiei Romania de Maine Bucuresti 2004 6)Tudosescu, A -- Syntax 2 .Lecture Notes, copies available in the faculty library (unpublished ms) 2002 Bibliografie optionala 1)Cornilescu,A ; Iclezan Dimitriu, I. Accuracy and Fluency, Institutul European, Iasi , 1996 2)Cornilescu, A --Concepts of Modern Grammar, Bucharest University Press, Bucharest 1996 3)Cornilescu ,A --English Syntax , vol 2 , TUB, 1984 4)Vince,M --Advanced English Practice, Heinemann, 1994 I) Morphology: Derivation vs. Inflection; Categories: Lexical categories vs. Functional categories.Verbal categories:Tense . Time reflected by tense. ; Tense: a deictic category.Time adverbials and tense inflections . Reichenbach's model (ST,RT,ET) The semantic description of the tenses of the Indicative Morphology is that branch of grammar that studies the structure of words, dealing with both word formation and inflection. Consequently there are two sub-branches of morphology -derivational morphology- studies word formation ( by prefixation, suffixation, compounding) -inflectional morphology- studies inflection Both inflectional markers and derivational markers are attached to a base. However the effect exerted by derivation and inflection on the lexical class of the base is different. Derivational affixes change the lexical class of the base in most cases, adding extra elements of meaning eg. : bright- brighten, build - building, nation- national . Diminutive suffixes do not change the lexical category of the base : book- booklet Inflectional markers do not change the lexical category of the base as all the inflected forms are variants of the same part of speech organized in paradigms. The members of a paradigm are in complementary distribution eg: go-goes-went-gone-going represent the inflected forms of the verb to go

Lexical categories stand for what traditional linguists call " parts of speech" and structuralists "form class or morpheme class" Within the class of lexical categories we include the following parts of speech : noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A),adver(Adv), preposition (P), particle (Prt).Each lexical category has a corresponding functional grammatical category. Unlike lexical categories functional categories are deprived of descriptive meaning and are organized in closed classes. For the lexical category of V the corresponding functional category is the auxiliary(Aux). The auxiliary includes the grammatical markers of Tense, Aspect, Mood . (eg. She may have been waiting) The verbal categories are tense, aspect, mood and modality. TENSE- is defined as the chronological order od events in time as perceived by the speaker at the moment of speaking Tense – grammatical form Time – physical notion Time – has a linear representation which preserves the sequential order of events in the perception of the world. – properties: – durationally infinite – segmentable – reversible or bi-directional (in Physics) – unidirectional and irreversible for human beings The division of time into segments is performed by two different procedures: 1) a personal, subjective estimation of time – personal time – human emotions function as an instrument. 2) a public estimate based on the periodicity of natural phenomena – public time or “clock time” To be able to order perceived events one has to set them in relation to another event that serves as an orientation criterion and creates an axis of orientation. An axis of orientation has a source event relative to which a chronological order can be established for the perceived events. These events can take place: – sequentially with the source event: before or after – simultaneously with the source event The primary axis of orientation is The PRESENT I. Present axis of orientation includes the following tenses: – simple present – present perfect – simple future II. The Past axis contains: -past - past perfect - future in the past III The Future axis includes: -Simple Future

} related with the Present Point (PP) -Future Perfect -Future in the past } related with the Retrospective Point (RP) -Future perfect in the past H. Reichenbach (1947) gave a semantic interpretation of Tense in terms of PRIMITIVES (ST, RT, ET) along the axis of time representation Speech Time (ST) = the time at which a certain sentence is uttered (the moment of speech) Reference Time (RT) = the time indicated by the sentence (present, past or future) Event Time (ET) = the moment when the relevant event occurs Tense = a ST, RT, ET configuration structured by relations of simultaneity and sequency (Reichenbach) Tense = a deictic category: the moment now of initiating speech is central in the sense that time, past or future, represents a direction the orientation of which depends on it ST=always now RT = a combination of tense inflections and time adverbials While ST and ET are pragmatically observable, RT represents an abstract moment of time postulated by the linguist. It plays a mediating role between ST and ET. Tense inflection and time adverbials must have compatible relational values, otherwise the string is ungrammatical. eg. Sue left yesterday *Sue left tomorow Reichenbach's theory conceives tense as a complex made up of three points in time (ST/RT/ET) but more recent studies suggest that we should replace the concept of point in time by that of time intervals as there are very few events that could be considered momentary (instantaneous). The great majority of events last for a period of time , they require an interval of time to happen. The temporal value of adverbials 1) Anchored adverbials – have explicit relations with the moment of speech(ST) eg.yesterday , tomorrow , now 2) Non-anchored adverbials – their temporal interpretation is not determined relative to ST eg. on Tuesday, in July Time adverbials are classified according to their meaning: 1) Anterior (<--): yesterday, -ago, last-, in July, on Tuesday 2) Simultaneous (=): now, right now, at this moment 3) Posterior (-->): tomorrow, next-, in-, on Tuesday, in July Time adverbials include adverbs, adverb phrases and subordinate adverbial clauses. In sentences without time adverbials a larger context may act as a time adverbial. In temporally vague sentences lacking time adverbials the temporal interpretation associated with RT is that of simultaneity as a the tendency is to choose the interpretation that requires the least additional information.

E.T.= specified with the help of prepositions that are part of the adverbial phrase at=simultaneity before=anteriority ------------------- to RT after= posteriority -already=anteriority -the auxiliary have - ET precedes RT (anteriority) ST, RT, ET combine to give the abstract temporal representation of a sentence , the so called ATR e.g. Allan played golf before noon ST=now ATR--------------- RT= noon, simple past RT<---ST ET=before ET<----RT Temporal adverbs contribute to the location of a situation in time. Some adverbs have aspectual value , they can occur only with a certain type of situation. In other cases the aspectual features of a predication are at variance with the aspectual properties of a temporal adverb so the two cannot co-occur.The clash between the incompatible aspectual properties of the two is sometimes rezolved by a contextual recategorization or a shift in the aspectual class of the respective predication According to Bennet and Hall-Pantee (1972,1978) and Smith (1978) we can distinguish the following classes of temporal adverbs a)Completive Adverbs / Containers b)Durative Adverbs c)Locating Adverbs / Frame Adverbs d)Frequency Adverbs A)Completive Adverbs (also termed "containers" or "adverbs of the interval") have the role to locate a situation at an interval during which the event reaches it's highest point or climax. They are endowed with the aspectual value and are compatible with telic situations and they are at variance with atelic ones. They combine with events (accomplishments and achievements). The strings with activities and states are ungrammatical Completive adverbs include expresions of the type "in x time" such in 3 hours, within two years, in ten seconds etc e.g The priest wrote a sermon in 2 hours * Mary ate sandwiches in half an hour * John resembled his father in ten seconds B)Duration Adverbs- are used to specify the lenght of time a certain situation is asserted to take. The stated intervals are not specifically confined to future or past. They have aspectual value and are compatible with atelic situations (states and activities/processes). The aspectual features of telic events are incompatible with the aspectual properties of the durative adverbs e.g. The two lovers danced for half an hour He owned the cottage for ten years * The helicopter landed for ten minutes

Some telic non-homogeneous situations (either punctual or durative) can occur with the durative adverbs andare recategorized as atelic/durative situations . They acquire new values such as "incompletion" or "iteration" e.g.The priest wrote a sermon for two hours ->incompletion ("He wrote at the sermon without finishing it") He kicked the ball for ten minutes -> iterative meaning ( a momentary event becomes a repeated process) Durative adverbials include expressions such as "for x time", "since x time", "all the evening" , "half the evening", "during the summer holiday" , "always" "from March to/till July" etc The durative temporal phrase "since x time" can occur with both homogeneous and non-homogeneous situations but the usage is restricted exclusively to the present perfect tense. The since adverbis an indefinite one although it is translated into Romanian by means of a definite adverb : the de-phrase C)Locating Adverbs or Frame Adverbs - are used to locate situations in time by relating them to other times or other situations (Smith 1991) They require an orientation point and they mirror relations of simultaneity ans sequence. Depending on the time of orientation these adverbs fall into three sub-classes: 1)deictic adverbs- explicitly valued to ST e.g. today, tomorrow, this week/year, last Friday etc 2)anaphoric adverbs- oriented to a previously established time e.g. on Monday, in June, early in two days, already etc 3)referential adverbs - relate to a time established by the clock or calendar e.g. in 1989, on the 1st of June, at five etc D)Frequency Adverbs - indicate the recurrent accurence of a situation within the reference interval. Aspectually, a series of individual events taht occur with a given frequency within the reference interval make up a state They include expresions such as: often, never, oncea day, usually, daily, yearly, every week/month/year, on Sundays Semantic Values of Tenses in English I. The Simple Present Tense 1) Generic use – to express eternal truths – to express general laws in scientific language – in proverbs – in geographical statements e.g.: London stands on the Thames – in prescriptive statements e.g.: In chess, bishops move diagonally – imply the presence of the adverbial “always” – no reference to a particular moment or situation or individual is intended

2) Habitual value – indicates that a situation is repeated with a given frequency during an interval – does not specify a particular event or a particular moment of time – adverbials of frequency: rarely, often, never, usually, every morning, three times a week, most days etc. – refers to an individual or an object e.g.: The milkman calls on Sundays. 3) Instantaneous value – picks out a particular event and a particular moment of time is referred to – the event is assumed to be simultaneous with the moment of speaking – used in: - sports commentaries - demonstrations - stage directions - with performative verbs such as: name, sentence, pronounce, etc. e.g.: I hereby pronounce you man and wife - the speaker must have the social position to use this verb -exclamations starting with here or there e.g. Here comes the bride! 4) Future value a) in simple sentences with an explicit future adverbial to refer to official or collective arrangements considered unalterable. It occurs with timetables , itineraries, schedules e.g. The plane takes off at 9 o'clock tomorrow b) in subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition introduced by : if, unless, when,as soon as, before, after, etc. e.g I won't go to the party if she doesn't invite me I shall give her the present when she comes back 5) Past value (historic present) – the relating of past events as if they were going on at the present time. e.g.: At that moment in comes a messenger. – with verbs of linguistic communication: tell, hear, listen ,say e.g.: The ten o’clock news says it’s going to be cold. – in newspaper headlines announcing recent events e.g.: Ex-Champ dies – in novels as a stylistic device II.The Present Progresive-has the following values 1) event-now-in-progress value -to refer to temporary situations including ST in their time span (framing effect). In association with states it may denote deliberate behaviour e.g. You are being tolerant today! 2)habitual / iterative value - unlike the habitual Simple Present associated with an indefinitely long period, the Progressive refers to " a habit in existence over a limited period". A side-meaning of the iterative is that of persistent activity having an annoying or amusing efect on the speaker. e.g. She is constantly complaining about her husband 3)"anticipated event" (or future) value

- to express a definite plan in the near future e.g. I am finishing my paper tomorrow night. 4)"polite use " -to reinforce the idea of" lack of commitment" III. The Simple Past Tense 1) Deictic use – creates a retrospective axis of orientation – locates an event at some specified time in the past 2) Habitual value – expresses recurrence of a past event – requires a frequency adverbial whose determiner is indefinite eg.: three times a week 3) Past Perfect value – presents two consecutive events e.g.: He knocked and entered. 4) Future value – a stylistic device used in SF – a make-believe technique employed in virtue of a convention that requires that past events should be narrated in the simple past. Future events are narrated as if they were recollected, not anticipated. 5) Present value – in everyday conversation to make questions more polite and less pressing. e.g.: I wondered if you’d look after my dog while I go shopping. IV . Past Tense Progressive 1)temporary value -to expres temporary or incomplete activities of limited duration e.g. They were playng chess this time yesterday. 2)habitual / iterative value -with the same connotation of limited duration like the Present Progressive 3)anticipated event (future in the past) value e.g. I went to bed at 10 o'clock as I was leaving for Paris the next day. 4)polite use . V. The Present Perfect 1) Indefinite Past Theory – the time reference of the Present Perfect is indefinite (it locates events before the moment of speaking, but without pointing to any particular moment) – The time reference of Past Time is definitely specified. 2) The Extended Now Theory – the Present Perfect is a marker of prior events which are included within the overall period of the present “the extended now” – RT = ST – the Past Tense marks events assigned to a past which is concluded and separate from the extended present – RT <--ST 3)The Current Relevance Theory (CR) According to Jespersen(1931) it is only the Present Perfect that purports current

relevance at the moment now. The Past Tense does not evince this feature. Later this theory on the pragmatics of the present perfect was resumed as the "discourse topic" theory. The discourse topic represents the subject matter under discussion in a certain context and consequently a sentence may be used in the present perfect or the past tense depending on its being pragmatically felicitous , i.e. its discourse topic meets the demands imposed by the use of the present perfect or the past tense The values of this tense are 1) state-up-to-the-present (the continuative Present Perfect) e.g. Have you known my cousin Sue for a long time? 2)habitual Present Perfect e.g.John has played golf in this club for seven years 3)experiential Present Perfect or indefinite past use e.g. Have you ever listened to Michael Bolton? 4)resultative Present Perfect e.g The helicopter has landed 5)"hot news" Present Perfect e.g.A famous DJ has been shot in a disco. 6)future value e.g. We shall go for a drive when I have finished my essay VI The Present Perfect Progressive- its values are the following 1)temporary situation up to the present e.g.She has been living in this hostel for weeks now 2)incomplete event e.g. I have been digging the garden for the last two hours (I haven't finished the job yet) 3)resultative value e.g "Your hands are dirty " "I have been repairing the car" VII. Past Perfect – specifies that an event occurred in an interval of time that started in the past up to the retrospective point, RP (then) which must be specified -the Past Perfect (Simple and Progressive) is similar to the Present Perfect (Simple and Progressive) excepting the fact that temporally it is placed on the past axis. Its values are similar to those of the Present Perfect VIII. Means of expressing futurity - In English the tense opposition is that between past/non-past. Unlike other European languages which have a one-to-one correspondence between the three time relations Past, Present , Future and the tense inflections , English has only two verbal inflections -(e)s for the Present and -ed for the Past. As present tense denotes both present and future time , many linguists call it non-past . The linguistic means of expresing futurity in English are either modal or aspectual since epistemic modality can describe non factual, possible, potential situations while the use of the progresive belongs to the aspectual sphere. The means of expresing futurity are the following

1) Simple Present with future value 2) Will / Shall Future – for predictions 3) Will / Shall + Progressive infinitive – prediction 4) The Present Progressive with future value – to express: a) human volition b) planned actions c) arrangements d) imminence 5) Be-Going to- Future – to express: a) future fulfilment of present intention e.g.: I’m going to stay at home and write. b) future fulfilment of present cause e.g.: She’s going to have a baby. (She’s already pregnant.) 6) Future Perfect = specifies a situation that takes place in the interval of time that starts before the RT, which in this case is future 7)Be+to infinitive- arrangements Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)What aspects of language does morphology deal with? 2)Discriminate between derivational affixes and inflectional ones 3)State the difference between public and personal time 4)Define the three primitives and explain how we specify each of them in a sentence 5)Why is tense a deictic category 6)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Present Tense Simple 7)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Past Tense Simple 8)Enumerate and illustrate the values of the Present Perfect Simple 9)Enumerate and illustrate the main means of expressing futurity in English 10)What have modern linguists suggested instead of the traditional three way tense distinction for English? How is their choice motivated? 11)Discuss the factors of the opposition Past Tense vs. Present Perfect 12)Discriminate between Present Tense Simple and Present Tense Continous Examples of exam questions 1)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Tense: So on Friday, Terry tells Lila to be ready for a surprise 1)Generic value 2)Habitual value 3)Instantaneous value 4)Past Tense value 5)Future value Ans. 4 2)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Progressive: My wife is having a headache 1)habit in existence over a limited period of time

2)polite use 3)present arrangement 4)annoying habitual activity 5)action in progress at ST 6)deliberate behaviour Ans. 6 3)Specify which of the following adverbials can be used : a)only with the Past Tense b)only with the Present Perfect c)with both tenses d)with neither of the tenses 1)recently 2)so far 3) in two weeks' time 4)for a fortnight Ans. 1c, 2b, 3d, 4c 4)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate value of the Present Perfect I've had interviews all the year but I still don't have a job. 1)Resultative Perfect 2)"Hot News" Perfect 3)Continuative perfect 4)Iterative Perfect 5)Experiential Perfect Ans.4 5)Match the underlined verb with the appropriate means of expressing futurity The plane will be landing shortly 1)Present arrangement 2)Prediction 3)Matter-of-course future 4)Future fullfilment of present intention 5)Future fullfilment of present course 6)Timetable future Ans. 3 II) Aspect:definition The main aspectual opposition. Vendler's aspectual classification of VPs; Syntactic tests performed to identify the aspectual classes, Recategorizations undergone by the classes of VPs; the imperfective paradox

Aspect I. Aspects – different ways of viewing the internal temporal constituency of a situation – a non-deictic category; it relates the time of the event described in the sentence to a time of reference – past – present – future II. Perfectivity versus Imperfectivity is the main aspectual opposition. a) the perfective aspect presents a situation in its totality without concern for its internal phases b) the imperfective aspect presents a situation as divided into internal phases. The aspectual system of languages is made up of two componets : The aspectual opposition perfective/imperfective which instantiates grammaticla aspect and the aspectual situation-type component. The latter is semantic in nature and its interpretation is decided at the level of the whole predication (i.e. the meaning of the verb and its arguments) Both components are defined and identified by means of their temporal structure. Semantically , we disambiguate between the two aspectual components by means of the following feature: [ + stative] , [ + telic] [ + durative] and compositionality. 1) [ + stative] divides the situation types into states and non-states. Non-states are dynamic, they involve causation , activity and change 2) [ + telic] devides the situation-types into telic situation-types which are goal-oriented and atelic situations which can be terminated at any time. Telic events have a natural/inherent end-point while atelic events have an arbitrary end-point. 3) [ + durative] divides aspectual situations into durative situations and punctual (instantaneous) ones. 4) Compositionality - the aspectual interpretation of a sentence is established at the level of verb constellation (i.e. the verb and its arguments) e.g. John ate a sandwich V [+telic]+Noun [count]=VP[accomplishment ,+telic] John ate popcorn V[+telic] + Noun[mass]= VP [activity,-telic] III. Vendler’s Aspectual Classification of Verbs Time – the basic concept used for the description of a VP There are 4 classes of verbs: states, activities, accomplishments, achievements. IV. Syntactic Tests Performed to Identify the Aspectual Classes of Verbs 1) The Imperative test – only activities and accomplishments admit the imperative 2) The Progressive Test – only activities and accomplishments are used in the progressive 3) Modification by the adverbs: carefully, deliberately, willingly – only activities and accomplishments admit such adverbs 4) Complementation by Force / Persuade – only activities and accomplishments admit complementation by the verbs to force / to persuade

e.g.: I persuaded / forced Jane to write / run / work. *I persuaded Jane to know the answer. 5) Use of the prepositions IN / FOR – only activities admit the preposition for – only accomplishments admit the preposition in e.g.: He was pushing a cart for twenty minutes. He drew a circle in twenty seconds. 6) Space adverbials indicating destination – only accomplishments admit them e.g. Go / walk to the park. 7)Occurrence in pseudo-cleft sentences with the auxiliary do. Only activities and accomplishments can appear in such patterns. e.g. What Susan did was play the piano/ play a sonata Activities – go on in time in a homogeneous way e.g.: to write, to sing, to swim Accomplishments – are not homogeneous; the parts are not of the same nature as the whole e.g.: to write a novel, to play a sonata, to swim the Channel States – last for a period of time and are homogeneous e.g.: to know, to love, to hate, to be tall, to be a bastard, to see Achievements – occur at a single moment of time, they are punctual e.g.: to start, to land, to die, to stop, to find V. The types of changes in the aspectual class of the VP induced by the presence of: 1) Bare Plurals and Mass Nouns Type of change: accomplishment -->activity; achievement -->activity 2) Adverbial phrases of extent and locative NPs indicating destination Type of change: a) Adverb of extent for – in: activity -->accomplishments; b) Locative prepositional NP indicating destination: activity -->accomplishment 3) The Progressive aspectual form – activity interpretation VI. Recategorisations undergone by the classes of verbs 1) Activity verbs describing movement + locative NPs or + adverbs of extent behave like accomplishments e.g.: to swim – to swim to the shore (activity -->accomplishment) 2) The use of a particle in a verb-particle construction induces an accomplishment reading e.g.: to turn the radio on; to take the garbage out 3) the use of the for-phrase – activity interpretation; the use of the in-phrase – accomplishment interpretation 4) The Progressive form – activity interpretation The simple habitual or generic form – state interpretation Are you smoking? – activity Do you smoke? – state VII. The Imperfective Paradox The sense of the progressive aspectual form is that of a process unfolding at a

certain reference time (RT). e.g.: 1) John drew a circle – the existence of a circle is implied 2) John was drawing a circle at that time – the progressive “suspends” the result interpretation Event verbs indicate that a certain goal is reached. Used in the progressive they become simple processes that unfold at the RT of the sentence. e.g.: They are dying whilst I speak. State verbs of the type be + Adj used in the progressive become processes unfolding now. e.g.: Harry is an awkward boy (property of Harry’s) Harry is being awkward now (he is deliberately behaving in this way) Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Define aspect and discuss the main aspectual opposition in English 2)Is aspect deictic or not? Motivate your choice 3)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of activity VPs and specify the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization 4)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of accomplisment VPs and specify the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization 5)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of states and specify the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization 6)Discuss the main characteristics of the aspectual class of achievements and specify the conditions under which they may undergo recategorization 7)Describe the different sub-classes of states and discuss the effect exerted by the be-progressive on these VPs 8)Discuss the syntactic tests performed to identify the aspectual classes of VPs according to Vendller Examples of exam questions 1) True/False Accomplisments select Bare Plurals as Direct Objects Ans. F Achievements are goal-oriented Ans. T 2) Multiple choice Specify the aspectual class to which the underlined predication belongs according to the Vendlerian aspectual classification of VPs She dyed her hair ash-blonde 1)state 2)activity 3)accomplisment 4)achievement Ans: 3

Identify the type of aspectual recategorization undergone by the underlined VP in the following sentence Quite surprisingly, John is being helpful today 1)from an achivement to a state 2)from an accomplisment to an activity 3)from an state to an accomplisment 4)from a state to an activity Ans. 4 Specify which of the following tests performed on the underlined VP induces a recategorization of the aspectual class. He drank a glass of soda 1)an adverbial phrase of extent 2)a Mass Noun as a Direct Object 3)the preposition in 4)a Bare plural as a Direct Object Ans 2, 4 III)Modality : definition. Ways of expressing modality in English. Defining criteria for modals. Deontic modality vs. Epistemic modality. Hoffman's disambiguating tests. The description of modal verbs .Mood :definition. The Indicative vs. the Subjunctive. Types of subjunctive.The distribution of the Subjunctive in independent and subordinate sentences Modality Modality represents a very complex phenomenon. The concept of modality in ordinary language includes beliefs and attitudes of the speaker towards what he is saying. For an adequate analysis of modality, it is necessary to consider not only the superficial syntactic environment and the logic – semantic structure, but also the larger context in which the discourse occurs, i.e. pragmatic elements. There are many ways of expressing modality in English: A. Nouns – change, hope, expectation, surprise, doubt, etc. B. Adjectives – conceivable, possible, likely, obvious, surprising, etc. C. Adverbs – hardly, perhaps, fortunately, etc. D. Verbs: 1) Main Verbs: alarm, anger, bother, disgust, doubt, think, suggest, etc. 2) Modals: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, need, ought to. Defining Criteria for Modals Modals are placed in the same class as primary auxiliaries 1) They lack the –s marker for the 3 rd person singular 2) They lack non-finite form i.e. the infinitive and the present and past participle 3) Negative form with the enclitic n’t 4) They lack derived nominals e.g.: ungrammatical strings: *John’s can-ness; *John’s can-ity

John’s ability – grammatical string-->ungrammatical string 5) They can have present forms (shall, will, can, must, may) or past forms (should, would, could, might) in the present tense sequence. e.g.: I think he may / might stay now Syntactic criteria 1) When stressed, they can express “emphatic affirmation” without the use of the do-periphrasis e.g.: I can walk 2) They form the negative by placing n’t right after the modal without do. 3) Inversion with the subject in interrogation without do. e.g.: Should he help his brother? 4) They are used without periphrasis as pro-forms e.g.: Paul would like that and so would I (i.e. and I would like it, too) 5) They do not occur in imperatives 6) They always occur as first element of the phrase e.g.: Mary may dare to want to come now 7) They do not combine with each other e.g.: *He should can see it, if he wants to 8) They always precede the following infinitive without the infinitive marker to Two different Readings of the Modals 1) one of a concrete nature (i.e. expressing permission, ability, volition, obligation – known in the literature as the root (deontic) sense (deontic – derived from a Greek word = it is right) 2) a more abstract reading expressing epistemic value (i.e. from possible to probable up to certain) – the epistemic sense (epistemic – derived from the Greek word “episteme” = knowledge) There are cases when the modal is ambiguous between the root sense and the epistemic sense. e.g.: John can work hard – ambiguous sentence a) root – John is able to work hard b) epistemic – It is possible for J. to work hard Hoffman (1968) proposed some grammatical tests that distinguish between deontic and epistemic modals. a) In the root sense the perfective aspect and the progressive aspect are excluded b) The subject of the root modals has to be [+ Animate] c) The root modals have past tense forms. Epistemic modals do not have any of the properties mentioned under a) – c) above The epistemic and deontic senses are closely connected. Modal verbs are in fact polysemous. In spite of the different occurrences of a modal there is something in the meaning it has which is always invariable: a common kernel meaning. The different meanings of a modal collapse into a “core” sense. There are two kinds of modal verbs. a) primary modals: can, may, must, will, shall b) secondary modals: could, might, ought to, would, should, dare, need (For a detailed description of the modal verbs see Crainiceanu p.168-196)

Mood Mood is a category by means of which “the speaker expresses his mental attitude towards the situation expressed by the verb phrase” (Poutsma, 1926) The situation can be presented as a fact or as only possible and consequently uncertain with respect to its realisation. The Indicative Mood is used to represent a situation as a fact, to provide the hearer with a representation of the world. The indicative is used in assertions to describe a portion of reality to which the hearer is supposed to have no access. Language is used informatively. The Subjunctive Mood is used in value judgements, both moral and non-moral and presents a situation as only possible, as something desirable, commendable. The Subjunctive is used in non-assertions. In non-assertions language is no longer descriptive, it is prescriptive. The subjunctive has a synthetic form (the old inflectional form of the subjunctive mood) and an analytical form (the old periphrastic subjunctive) mainly with should. At present, British English (BE) favours the analytical form while American English seems to prefer the synthetic form. The distribution of the Subjunctive It is used in both independent and dependent sentences: a) The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences From a syntactic point of view these sentences have been described as embedded sentences where the deleted matrix verb is I wish / order. From a semantic point of view these sentences express exhortations or commendations that certain solutions be brought about. e.g.: Thy kingdom come!; Success attend you! Grammar be hanged!; So be it!; Suffice it to say!; The Devil seize that man! b) The Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses These clauses are of two different syntactic types: 1) Complement that clauses; 2) Various types of adverbial clauses 1) Complement that clauses – the matrix verbs that occur in these patterns are: a) exercitive verbs: ask, require, demand, forbid, order, urge, etc. – introduce an exhortation that a certain state of affairs come into being b) boulomaic verbs: want, wish, hope, desire – introduce a commendation c) verbs of linguistic communication: tell, say, declare, inform, point out, persuade – the situation is presented as non-factual d) – emotive verbs – patterns with emotive adjectives – the situation is described as commendable 2) Subordinate adverbial clauses – present non-actual situations Types of adverbial clauses: a) concessive clauses; b) unreal conditional clauses; c) clauses of purpose; d) clauses of unreal comparison; e) clauses of time; f) clauses of place; g) clauses of result; h) clauses of cause. In many cases both the indicative and the subjunctive can occur in the same structure depending on the attitude towards the solution described: a) the situation is factual – the indicative is used b) the situation is not factual, but only possible – the subjunctive is used. (for a detailed description of the use of the analytic subjunctive amd synthetic subjunctive see Coliban p.222-228, p238-241)

Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Define modality and discuss the ways of expressing modality in English 2)State the criteria according to which modal verbs can be placed in the same class as primary auxiliaries 3)Disambiguate between epistemic modality and deictic (root) modality from a semantic and syntactic point of view 4)Discuss and illustrate modal verbs expressing degrees of certainty 5)Discuss and illustrate modal verbs expressing necessity and constraint 6)Discuss modal verbs expressing permision and ability 7)Define mood and discuss the relationship between mood and modality 8)State the main semantic opposition between the Indicative and the Subjunctive 9)Discuss the different forms of the Subjunctive. How are they used in BE and AE? 10)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in independent clauses 11)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in that-Complement clauses 12)Discuss and illustrate the use of the Subjunctive in different types of adverbial clauses Examples of exam questions 1)Choose the correct translation of the following sentence Nu era nevoie sa-ti iei umbrela; mergem cu masina la gara. 1)You didn't need to take your umbrella; we are driving to the station. 2)You needn't have taken your umbrella; we are driving to the station 3)You needn't had taken your umbrella; we are driving to the station Ans. 2 2)Identify the contextual meaning of the modal verb Will 1)Boys will be boys 2)I will protect you 3)The suitcase won't open 4)She will be undercover somewhere a)predictability b)reluctance c)volition will d)characteristic behaviour Ans. 1d, 2c, 3b, 4a 3)Specify the effect triggered by the presence of the Perfect Infinitive after the modal verb in the sentence She may sleep in the spare room 1)a change from the epistemic to the deontic interpretation of the modal 2)a change from the deontic to the epistemic interpretation of the modal 3)no change in the interpretation of the modal 4)both readings are possible irrespective of the presence of the perfect infinitive Ans. 2

4)True/ False Modality can be expresed only by verbs and adverbs Ans. F The subject of epistemic modals is always [+Human] Ans. F Epistemic may is replaced by might in interrogative sentences Ans. F In negative sentences deontic must not negates the event indicating the obligation no to perform some action (internal negation) Ans. T The synthetic subjunctive uses old inflectional forms Ans. T After it is time one can use either a subjunctive or a For +Acc+Infinitive without any change of meaning Ans. F The analytic subjunctive is used after exercitive verbs in object clauses Ans. T The analytic subjunctive is used after emotive verbs and adjectives Ans. F The analytic subjunctive cannot be used in adverbial clauses of result Ans F The analytic subjunctive is used to express unreal comparison Ans. F IV)Predication. Structural and logico-semantic tasks . The syntactic property of transitivity. Copulative predication; Copula and Copula-like verbs; Typology of predicatives. 1.0. Predication. Structural and Logico-semantic Tasks The key to the structure of the IP is the predicative core or nucleus, realising the relation of predication and the function of Predicate Phrase. This core is made up of verbal items and phrases, which form two clusters. The central one is the head constituent Inflection (I °). Its immediate constituents – obligatory Tense (the formatives 0/-s for the Present and –ed for the Past) in finite sentences, Mood and Modality (the Vs shall, will, can, may a. s. o.), Aspect ( the set of formatives have + -en for the Perfect and be-ing for the Progressive), as well as the Agreement markers (the features of person and number transferred from the Subject NP) – carry out all the formal or structural tasks of predication:

The head of the VP, V °, expresses an event or a state-of-affairs, or it assigns a property to the referent of the Subject NP. The V head occurs by itself (for most intransitives), or it selects a ‘sister’ constituent in Complement position (for transitives). Together, the V and its Complement select the Subject NP, which expresses the main participant in the event, the Protagonist. In most cases this is an Agent or an Experiencer, both these thematic roles being realised by [+human] NPs. The most relevant elements for predication are, therefore: 1. the subcategorisation frame of the verb; 2. the theta-grid associated with the verb. In what follows we shall supply the typology of predications in English, using as a main guideline the subcategories that realise the predication tasks as heads of the VP. 1.1. The Syntactic Property of Transitivity The main syntactic property that brings about a partition of V items into two big subcategories is transitivity. The syntactic property of transitivity refers to the obligatory valency / contextual feature of V: [+ __ NP]. Vs that never enter this frame are intransitive. They are further subdivided into meaningless intransitives called copulas or copular / linking Vs (mainly the verb BE), and meaningful intransitives. The latter can be further subcategorised by taking into account the number of arguments in their theta-grid and the thematic roles they bear. The main division within intransitives with one argument is that between: a) unergatives, one-argument Vs that merely take an Agent as Subject, e.g. cough, sneeze, neigh, sleep, bark, etc.; and b) unaccusatives, one-argument intransitives that take a Theme-bearing argument which cannot be assigned Accusative case. Hence it has to be moved to Subject position. Here we include eventives like happen, occur, existentials like be and exist, Vs of seeming like seem and appear, resultative state verbs like die. By contrast with these two subclasses, transitives are associated with two

thematic roles: Agent as external argument and Theme or Patient as internal argument. The first role is grammaticalised as Subject, the second as Direct Object. Consider: a) unergative intransitive: The boxer was barking (in the back yard). Agent b) unaccusative intransitive: The accident happened (last night). Theme c) transitive: The woman was describing the scene. Agent Theme Transitivity has a ‘floating’ nature, it can determine shifts of Vs from the basic intransitive regime to a derived intransitive one. These shifts are explained as cases of recategorisation. Thus the intransitive verb LIVE may be recategorised as transitive in the following contexts: a) if it occurs with a Cognate Object as in They lived a miserable life; b) if the locative Preposition in is deleted, as in They lived Oxford Street. The reverse direction can be illustrated by cases of Direct Object Deletion, e.g. Sean was smoking, or of Passivals, e.g. That dictionary sold well. 2.0. Intransitives 2. 1. The Copulative Predication Type A. Copulative Predication is characterised by the following features: 1) it is a discontinuous, binary structure made up of two constituents: - The Copula – a meaningless or quasi-meaningless intransitive V, like BE and other Copula-like Vs which carries out the formal tasks of predication - The Predicative – realised by an adjectival or nominal phrase which conveys the meaning of the predicate, thus performing the lexical tasks of predication Consider: The show was quite successful. (BeˆAP) The show was a great success. (BeˆNP) The Predicative may be realised by one of the following Phrases: Adjectival Phrase (AP) Noun Phrase (NP) simple ----- non-clausal constituents Prepositional Phrase (PP) Complementizer Phrase (CP) ---clausal constituents (finite or non-finite) e.g: a) This teacher is absent-minded. - AP b) This teacher is the Head of the English Department. - NP c) This teacher is in need of money. - PP d) The problem is that this teacher has not attended those courses. - CP 2) the tasks of predication are carried out as follows: i) the formal / structural tasks are fulfilled by copular BE and other similar verbs which are the carriers of the markers of predication (the formatives that make up the Inflection head): Agreement markers – copied from the Subject NP [person; number] Tense, Aspect, Modality markers Here are examples of Aspect marking: a) John has been very rude today (the Perfect); b) John is being very rude (the Progressive). The two Aspects never combine in copulative predicates: *John has been being rude.

ii) the lexical tasks are carried out by the Phrase in Complement position, functioning as Predicative; the predicative may: a) assign a property or an attribute to the referent of the Subject NP, e.g.: Peter is fanciful / a poet / a fanciful poet. (the last variant assigns two properties by means of the NP) b) assign an identity to the referent of the Subject NP, thus functioning as ‘identifier’, e.g.: Marian is my brother's wife. / She is the leader of our team. B. More on the Copula and Copula-like Verbs Be enjoys a multiple grammatical regime, i.e. it may be: a) a meaningful existential V belonging to the subcategory of unaccusatives; b) a copular, link(ing) V; c) an auxiliary for the Progressive and the Passive; d) a modal substitute (to-be-to Infinitive). Examples: a) Once upon a time there was a princess. - existential Be (denoting Their villa is on the outskirts of the town. existence in space and/or time) b) Two is company, three is a crowd. - copular Be c) The application is being typed. - auxiliary Be (marker of the Progr or Pass) d) He is to arrive tomorrow. - modal Be Despite the distinct syntactic and semantic features of the three types of BE, they all share the same behavioural peculiarities, namely: a) Be does not require Do-insertion (except Negative Imperatives like Don’t be so cheeky!); b) in Question formation it undergoes inversion with the Subject (e.g. Is the puppy in the kennel? Is it barking? Is it black and white?); c) the Negator is inserted after Be and contraction can freely apply, e.g. This pupil is not (isn’t) writing; d) all types of Be can undergo deletion in contexts like Relative Clauses (e.g. the pad which is on the desk -->the pad on the desk), Accusative with Infinitive constructions (e.g. I considered Chomsky (to be) a genius), Time Adverbial Clauses introduced by when or while (e.g. Tom is very witty when / while (he is) sober); e) all types of Be can undergo There-Insertion, except copular Be, e.g. There is a puppy in the kennel; There is a man crying for help, but: *There is a girl clever.; f) Be does not theta-mark its NP neighbours, but for existential Be – which takes a Theme-marked NP that moves to Subject position, being frequently associated with a Location – e.g. Paris is on the Seine. (theta-grid: <Theme, Loc>) Copula-like verbs evince the same combinatorial possibilities as BE, but they are idiosyncratic; hence the Lexicon indicates the contextual features specific to each. In point of meaning they are semantically poor, forming a scale from meaningless to meaningful: MAKE is, like BE, meaningless or it may have a tinge of ‘becoming’ (the [+ inchoative] feature), e.g. This book makes excellent reading; She will make a very good French teacher. The Vs of BECOMING share the feature [+ inchoative] and pattern as follows: BECOME [ _ Pred. NP] On leaving school he became a bank clerk. [ _ AP] Our work is becoming more challenging. [ _ PP] I wonder what became of the gold watch you used to wear.

COME [ _ AP] Her dreams have come true. [ _ to Inf] In some towns the streets came to be used as parking places. GET [ _ AP] It’s getting dark. [ _ to Inf.] They got to be friends. GROW [ _ AP] Marian is growing prettier and prettier. [ _ to Inf.] She's growing to like him better. Positional Verbs can also undergo a weakening of meaning, thus becoming copula-like Vs. It is the case of loom, lie, sit, stand and rank. The student is required to look up the dictionary entries for each and take down contexts to illustrate their behaviour as copula-like Vs. Perception Verbs are placed at the other end of the semantic scale. They are meaningful state Vs, which take APs as Predicatives and to-NPs as Indirect Objects expressing the role Experiencer: e.g. Those oranges tasted sour (to the child); The news sounds incredible (to my ears). The class also includes the verbs sound, feel, look. All sense perception Vs are basically [+ state], but they may recategorise as [- state] and shift from intransitives to transitives, e.g.: The lilac smelled sweet. (smell: [+ state], copula-like V: [ _ Pred AP]) and I smelled the lilac. (where smell: [- state], transitive V: [ _ NP]) 2.2. Typology of Predicatives 1) According to the the logico-semantic criterion predicatives can be either attributive or equative: a) Attributive predicatives are property assigners, the predicative assigns a property to the subject, hence the subject is called the attributed term and the predicative – the attribuant, e.g.: The fresher was impudent. The predicative adjective impudent assigns the property of being impudent to the subject. The two terms cannot be reverted: *Impudent was the fresher. (--> the S is ungrammatical) The subject may be expressed by a [± definite NP]:. The task was too hard for him.; A policeman was rude. The predicative may be: [AP] Jenny is cute.; [- definite NP] Jenny is a student of German.; [PP] His country is in a state-of-change.; [CP] Seeing is believing. This attributive relation may be of two kinds: i. Class membership: A . B This novel is interesting. (The referent of the subject is a member of the class of interesting entities) ii. Class inclusion: A c B The / A tiger is a feline. (The referents of the Subject form a small set included in the bigger set denoted by the Predicative) b) Equative (identifying) predicatives establish the identity of the subject and both the subject and the predicative must be marked by [+ definiteness]. The subject and the predicative can be reverted: Tony Blair is Prime Minister. Æ The Prime Minister is Tony Blair. The predicative may be: [+ definite NP] Jane was her teacher.; [AP, + superlative] This student is the smartest of all.; [CP] Her change of mood was what puzzled everybody.

2) According to the syntactic criterion, APs may be: a. both modifying and predicative (a kind man; He was kind.) b. exclusively modifying, occurring in prenominal contexts as Noun Modifiers (an utter fool), c. exclusively predicative, occurring in verbal contexts as Predicatives (The child wasn’t asleep.) Exclusively modifying As include: a) classifying As (financial help, economic problems); these As serve to specify a set of reference, and most of them are [- gradable] and [+ denominal]; b) emphasizing As (utter, sheer, absolute); c) As indicating position (lower, upper); d) certain -ing As (freezing cold, scalding hot) Exclusively predicative As include a-prefixed As: awake, asleep, alive, alone, ablaze, adrift. Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Discuss the structure of the IP. 2)Discriminate between strict subcategorizations and selectional ones .Supply your own examples of frames for different classes of verbs. 3)Discuss the differences between the meaningful intransitives and the transitives in tems of the number of arguments in their theta-grid and the thematic roles they bear 4)Discuss the "floating nature" of transitivity 5)Give a full description of the Copulative Predication in terms of its constituents 6)Give a description of the Copulative Predication in terms of the way in which the tasks of predication are fulfilled 7)Discuss and illustrate the multiple grammatical regime of the verb BE. 8)Discuss the common semantic and syntactic features of the different types of BE and state the existing formal and semantic differences. 9)Discuss and illustrate in examples of your own the subcategorization frames of five copula-like verbs 10)Give a semantic description of the different classes of copula-like verbs 11)Discuss and illustrate in examples of your own the classes of predicatives within a logico-semantic classification of APs 12)Discuss and illustrate the classes of predicatives within a syntactic classification of APs Examples of exam questions 1) Matching : Match the copular Vs in the first column with the appropriate subcategorization frame(s) in the second 1)Get a)[-pred. AP] 2)Be b)[-Pred. NP] 3)Come c)[-PP] 4)Sound d)[-to Inf.] e)[-CP] ans. 1ad, 2abcde, 3ad, 4a 2) Multiple choice . Specify whether the adjective fond is

a)[+predicative/+modifying] b)exclusively predicative c)exclusively modifying ans . b Specify whether the following predication is attributive or equative A fresher is a first-year student a)equative b)attributive ans. b 3)True/False The attributive nominal predicate is realized by a singular [+definite] NP as a predicative ans. F Copula-like verbs of becoming have been recategorized from intransitive motion verbs ans T Positional Copula-like verbs can take PPs as predications ans. F V)Non copulative Intransitives. Simple intransitive verbs. Complex intransitives. Intransitivisation 3.0. Non-copulative Intransitives Intransitives can be divided into syntactically simple intransitives and syntactically complex intransitives. 3.1. Simple intransitive verbs Lexically simple intransitives are "verbs of complete predication", as they can carry out the tasks of predication by themselves. Their subcategorisation frame is [ ___ #]. Semantically, they express events of all types – activities, processes or states with reference to a wide range of possible Subjects. Syntactically, these predicates can take as optional Adjuncts Prepositional Objects, as well as Averbial Modifiers of various kinds, e.g.: The lilies have (splendidly) bloomed (in my garden). (Æ optional Adjuncts: Manner Av – splendidly, Place Av – in my garden) Simple intransitives can be subdivided into the class of unergatives, with Agentive Subjects (bloom, work, sleep, blink, fly, run) and the class of unaccusatives with Theme Subjects (die, grow, appear, vanish, burst, collapse). Syntactically simple intransitives can also be expressed by lexically complex verbs, made up of Verb and Averbial Particle (traditionally labelled as Complex / Phrasal Verbs). They evince a high degree of idiomaticity, e.g.: The lights have gone out. Other examples: pass away, take off, show up, etc.

3.2. Complex Intransitives 3.2.1. Prepositional Intransitives This subcategory includes Vs with obligatory preposition, such as: to look at, to wait for, to do with. The subcategorisation frame is [ __ PP], the obligatory PP having the syntactic function of PO (Prepositional Object). Prepositional intransitives can undergo passivisation, e.g.: Jack insisted on that proposal. Æ That proposal was insisted on. 3.2.2. Intransitives with Particle and Preposition: [ __ Prt, PP] The class includes phrasal Vs which take an obligatory Preposition governing an Object: They had done away with this piece of legislation. The family came [up]Prt [against fresh problems]PO. 3.2.3. Intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object: [ __ to NP] Several subclasses of intransitives, among which eventive Vs, experiencer Vs, relational Vs take an Indirect Object marked by the Dative preposition to. a. The eventive type: verbs like happen and befall take Dative NPs expressing the Experiencer of an event, e.g.: What's happened to the old man? b. The experiencer type: the class consists of verbs of seeming (seem, appear), verbs of perception (sound, taste, smell), verbs of cognition (occur to smb that..). Examples: It seemed to me that I was dreaming. That possibility had never occurred to anyone. c. The relational type: these Vs can be grouped into 1. those indicating relations between all kinds of entities (Vs indicating possession: belong to smb, pertain to smb, e.g. The dash and fire pertaining to youth are transient.) and 2. those specialised for inferiority relations between man and other entities, including bow to smb., accrue to smb., cringe to / before smb, yield to smth. Examples: The girl bowed to the audience. Our people will never surrender to foreign invaders. 3.2.4. Intransitives with Two Prepositional Objects: [ __ PP, PP] A number of intransitive Vs may be followed by two PPs. Prepositional Object Deletion often applies, having as an effect in surface structure the removal of one or the other of the two Objects. These Vs can be further subdivided into: a) Vs with an Indirect Object marked by to, followed by a PO in which the Prep indicates a topic – about, on, upon, or the cause or purpose of an action – for. He lectures [to undergraduates]IO [on the Elizabethan theatre]PO. b) Vs such as argue, discuss or quarrel which take as first Object a with NP indicating the human participating as a partner in the respective activity, e.g.: He was arguing with his wife about money. 3.2.5. Intransitives with Adverbial Modifiers: [ __ AvP]

There are several subcategories of Vs that take obligatory Adverbials of various kinds: a) Intransitives with Adverbial Modifiers of Place and Direction: verbs denoting existence in space such as be, lie, remain, sit, stand commonly take a Place Adverbial – either a locative Adverb or a locative PP; Motion Vs take, according to the semantic subclass they belong to, AvPs expressing: (a) the departure point; (b) the destination point; (c) the path or itinerary. One and the same V sometimes enters all four, e.g.: Have you flown up to this place? (destination point), Have you flown from Athens to Rome? (path) b) Intransitives with Quantifying Adverbials: the verbs cost, weigh and owe, often treated erroneously as transitives (on account of their co-occurrence with a non-prepositional NP) actually take Quantifying Adverbials, e.g.: The dictionary costs 200$. Quantifying Adverbials of Place occur obligatorily with the verb stretch and optionally with most of the motion Vs, e.g.: The corn field stretched miles away. The verb last takes an obligatory Quantifying Adverbial of Time, e.g.: The concert lasted (for) three hours. 3.2.6. Reciprocal Intransitives Inherently reciprocal Vs occur in two alternative configurations: (a) with a phrasally conjoined and NP or other types of [+ set] NPs as Subject; and (b) in a prepositional construction, if the Subject is a [+ sg] NP. In the latter case the Preposition is indicated for each reciprocal V in its lexical entry. Examples: (a) 1. The train and the bus / they / the trains collided (with each other). 2. The married couple has recently separated. (b) The train collided with the bus. The bus collided with the train. 3.3. Intransitivisation Some transitive verbs may be recategorised as intransitives in the following cases: 1. A number of transitives allow the deletion of their Direct Object NP if the DO is more or less specialised semantically (i.e. if it satisfies the V's selectional features), but is not definite referentially. Examples: I don't particularly like the way she sings (songs -->Ø). Whenever I see her, she is smoking (cigarettes -->Ø). 2. The Reflexive Direct Object can also be deleted with some transitive Vs, among which dress, shave or wash He is the habit of shaving (himself -->Ø) daily. 3. The Direct Object may be promoted in Subject position. This occurs in activo-passives or passivals. This material washes well. (DO -->Subject; V remains active) Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Give a description of the simple intransitive verbs in terms of their syntactic behaviour

2)Discuss the term of "split intransitivity" 3)Discriminate between unergatives and unacussatives in term of their D-structure 4)Disambiguate between lexically complex and syntactically complex intransitives 5)Discuss different patterns belonging to the class of Complex(Phrasal) Intransitives and point out syntactically relevant differences between them. 6)Discuss the behaviour of intransitives with Prepositional Object in terms of their passivization 7)Give a full description of the sub-classes of intransitives with a Prepositional Indirect Object 8)Disambiguate between the sub-classes of intransitives with obligatory Adverbials from a semantic point of view 9)Explain the concept of intransitivisation and illustrate it in your own examples. Examples of exam questions 1)True/False Unergatives can take Agentive subjects or Theme subjects ans.F Verbes of possession belong to the eventive type ans.F 2)Matching Match the intransitive verbs in the first column with the type of Adverbial modifier in the second column 1)stretch a)Adverbial of Manner 2)last b)Quantifying Adverbial 3)weigh c)Quantifying Adverbial of Time 4)act d)Quantifying Adverbial of Place ans. 1d, 2c, 3b, 4a 3)Multiple choice Specify whether the underlined verb in the sentence "The apparently happy couple separated" is: a)a prepositional intransitive b)a reciprocal intransitive c)a transitive verb ans. b VI)Transitive predication. Syntactically simple transitives.Syntactically complex transitives 4.0. Transitive Predications All transitives share the feature [ __ NP]. This NP occupies the Complement position, being governed by the transitive V. The V governor assigns Accusative

case to its governee. The lexical entry of a transitive V also includes information about the selectional restrictions imposed by the respective item, e.g. Vs like cut and slice select [- animate], [- abstract] NPs as DOs, while know and believe select [- animate], [+ abstract] NPs as DOs. The inherent semantic features of each transitive are also specified in the lexical entry (e.g. [+ causative], [± state], etc.). Features like [+ Object Deletion] or [+ Passivisation] indicate the transformational behaviour of each item. The lexical entry also includes the theta-grid associated with the respective V. Most transitives take an Agent as external argument and a Patient / Theme as internal argument. 4.1. Syntactically Simple Transitives: [ __ NP] 1. Monotransitives with Affected Objects indicate activities which affect concrete entities, including Vs like: accumulate (goods, wealth), adapt (a script, a piece of furniture), decorate, ornament (a room, a house), air (the room, the bedding), back (a car). A subcategory apart includes verbs which take as Direct Objects parts of the human body. The respective NPs are determined by Possessives which are co-referent with the NP-Subject. Passivisation is blocked: bare (one’s head), bite (one’s tongue), bump (one’s head), clap (one’s hands), close (one’s eyes), drag (one’s feet), nod (one’s head), shrug (one’s shoulders). 2. Verbs with Effected / Resultative Object indicate activities that effect / create concrete entities. The prototype of this class of Vs is to make. They often take a second object, expressing the beneficiary of the respective activity by means of a for NP. The class includes: build (a shelter), carve (a statue), compose (music), cook (cakes), create (a model), crochet (gloves), dig (ditches), draw (a cartoon), erect (a monument). A special type of effected object is the Cognate Object taken by inherently intransitive verbs, which recategorise, in this way, as transitives: to smile an amiable smile, to dream a melancholy dream, to sleep the sleep of the just. 3. Verbs with Affected and/or Effected Object One and the same verb may take, contextually, either an affected or an effected direct object. Compare: Who’d like to carve the chicken? (affected DO) and Whoever carved this statue was a genius. (effected DO). Other verbs that may take both types of objects are: paint, raise, dig, burn, etc. 4. Relational Verbs express symmetric or asymmetric relations between entities. Symmetric relations are rendered by reciprocal verbs which express mutual relations between humans (marry, divorce) or relations of similarity between entities (resemble). Vs of possession express asymmetric relations. Their prototype is HAVE, which has a multiple semantic and syntactic regime (as auxiliary for the Perfect, causative V, modal, prop-V) Its synonyms – own and possess also predicate configurations with a possessive meaning. The Subject NP grammaticalises the role Benefactive, the Direct Object NP bears the role Theme. The two classes of relational Vs described above resist Passivisation. Inclusion relationships are rendered by transitive verbs such as contain, hold, comprise, include, cover, a. s. o. These verbs are semantically related to verbs of possession.

5. Verbs with Instrumental Object like use, handle, employ, manipulate take Direct Objects that gramaticalise the role Instrument, e.g.: Tom used a knife to cut the salami. 6. Verbs with Locative Object such as enter (a place), inhabit (a flat), reach (a destination), leave (a town) co-occur with Direct Objects that have a locative or directional tinge, otherwise rendered by Prepositional markers. Compare: enter the hall to go into the hall; leave the town to depart from the town. 7. Verbs with Abstract Direct Object include Vs like denote, imply, elucidate, etc, whose Direct Object expresses an abstraction. Quite often such Vs take a Complement Clause in Object position. Vs of linguistic communication, or Vs of cognition often take such a clausal Direct Object, e.g.: The jury declared that the proofs were not valid. They considered that the man was not guilty. 8. Causative Verbs (periphrastic, lexical, morphological) They are transitive verbs inherently marked by [+ causative] or intransitive ones recategorised as transitives and occurring contextually as causatives. These Vs express either mere causation of an event (cause, make, get), or an event in which causation is implied, e.g. teach (cause smb to learn), cool (cause smth to become cool), persuade (cause smb to believe). All causative constructions are transitive, owing to the fact that causation always implies two roles: a causer and an affected or effected entity. Causatives can be classified into: a) Periphrastic causatives including the Vs: cause, determine, make, have and get. Semantically speaking, they render the idea of causation quite neutrally, with the exception of have and get, which may have an additional tinge of compulsion or order, e.g.: I shall have him rewrite the story. (= I shall oblige him to … ) b) Lexical causatives form pairs with intransitive verbs, denoting the resultative aspect of the respective activity, process or state by means of a lexically distinct item. Consider the pair: Caesar died. / Brutus killed Caesar. The verb die occurs as a one-term verb, taking the Patient as Subject. The same Patient occurs as Object of its causative counterpart kill, which is a two-term verb, with an Agent as Subject. The relation between the transitive and the intransitive verb configurations is lexicalised, in that the possibility of using the same V lexeme in these cases is ruled out: *Brutus died Caesar. Here are some more members of this class: give = cause smb to have; remind = cause smb to remember; put = cause smth to be in a place; entertain = cause smb to rejoice; send = cause smb to receive; raise = cause smth to rise; fell = cause smth to fall. c) Morphological Causatives are derived from other lexical items by means of word formation processes, namely by conversion or affixation. 1) Causatives derived by conversion: to cool (from the A cool, A ÆV, She cooled the soup.), to blind (A-->V), to better, to empty; 2) Causatives derived by affixation include: a) causatives formed by prefixation: with prefix be- (becalm, benumb), prefix dis- (disable, disanimate), en- ( enlarge, enrich, embitter) b) causatives formed by suffixation: with suffix -ate (activate, differentiate), with suffix -ise (-ize) (commercialise, criticise), with -en (madden, lessen). d) Attitudinal Causatives / Experiencer Causatives express a psychological reaction aroused in a human being by an exterior stimulus and include verbs like puzzle, terrify, surprise, please, etc, e.g.: The news pleased everybody.

e) Dative Causatives include causatives that take two objects, an IO and a DO: give smth to smb, sell smth to smb, show smth to smb. f) Ergative Verbs are verbs which couple the basic regimes of both transitives and intransitives. The same verb may predicate, without any difference in its phonological form, a one-term intransitive configuration or a two-term transitive one: Sarah moved the branch. (move = transitive V) and The branch moved. (move = intransitive V). Other Vs: drop, break, melt, roll, improve, stir. 9. Lexically Complex Verbs are made up of a verbal item and an Adverbial Particle, e.g.: Turn off the lights! Some of these verbs can undergo particle movement, e.g.: Turn the lights off! Intransitives Recategorised as Causatives Intransitive verbs may be recategorised as transitive, when they contextually incorporate the [+ causative] feature: He walked the horse up and down. 4.2. Syntactically Complex Transitives 1. Dative Verbs have the following subcategorisation frame: [ __ NP, to / for NP], they include verbs like: make smth for smb, lend smth to smb, communicate smth to smb. For details see Ş erban, D., English Syntax, vol. 1, pp. 335-364. 2. Prepositional Transitives enter configurations in which the DO is followed by a PO ([ __ NP, PP]): accuse smb of smth, blame smb for smth, deprive smb of smth, reproach smb with smth. 3. Transitives with Particle and Preposition include verbs with Adverbial Particle followed by an obligatory preposition: to look down on smb, to let smb in on smth, to get smb off to a good start, etc. Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Discuss the subcategorization of monotransitives in terms of the Theta-Role of the Direct Object. Illustrate the class of transitives with Affected Object 2)Discuss the class of monotransitives with Effected Object 3)Give a description of patterns included within the class of Relational verbs 4)Discuss the classification of causative verbs. Illustrate it in examples of your own 5)Discuss the syntactic and semantic behaviour of ergative verbs 6)Discuss the different types of syntactically complex transitives in terms of their subcategorization frame Examples of exam questions 1)Multiple choice State whether passivisation is allowed or blocked in the following sentence She shrugged her shoulders a)Passivisation is blocked b)Passivisation is allowed ans. a 2)Matching

Match the following transitive verbs with the appropriate direct object 1)The prisoners dug ditches round the military camp 2)Grandma airs her bedding every morning 3)The two rascals left the town at midnight 4)They believed that their son was innocent a)Locative Object b)Affected Object c)Resultative Object d)Abstract DO ans. 1c, 2b, 3a, 4d 3)True/False Relational verbs expressing simmetric relations resist passivisation ans.T The verb to remind the sentence "She reminded me of her eldest sister" is a morphological causative ans.F VII)Complementation; Types of complement clauses; THAT clauses: transformations and patterns;The distribution of THAT clauses Alongside with Relativisation, Subordination by Complementation stands as a major syntactic means to encode and render semantic information, for the various patterns featuring Complement Clauses can express semantic relations of the descriptive, effective, and circumstantial types altogether. In order to identify the types of Complement Clauses, an important phenomenon has to be brought into relief, namely the fact that the embedded by complementation clause may become more and more nouny, and less sentency. Thus, a hierarchy can be obtained, reflecting the degrees of nominalisation: Clausal Complement ›Nominal Complement. (1a) [That Mike gladly offered his expensive books to Joe] amazed us all. (THAT Clause – Finite) (1b) [For Mike to offer / to have offered gladly his books to Joe] amazed us all. Split Infinitive ›to gladly offer / to have gladly offered (FOR-TO Infinitive – V loses its Tense) (1c) [How gladly Mike offered his books to Joe] amazed us all. (Embedded Question – Finite) (1d) [Mike / Him (Acc) gladly offering his books to Joe] amazed us all. (Half-Gerund; V loses Tense and Aspect) (1e) [Mike’s / His (G) gladly offering his books to Joe] amazed us all. (Full-Gerund) (1f) [Mike’s / His gladly offering of his books to Joe] amazed us all. (nominalisation; verbal N, G Determiner)

(1g) Mike’s / His glad offer of his books to Joe amazed us all. (full / proper nominalisation; deverbal N, adjective) The Complement Clause types identified above evince differentiated syntactic behaviour. One such distinguishing factor is surfacing of preposition: (2) We were surprised *at [that he behaved so strangely]. (preposition deletion) We were surprised *at [for him to behave so strangely]. (preposition deletion) We were surprised (at) [how strangely he behaved]. (optional preposition deletion) We were surprised at [him / his behaving so strangely]. (obligatory preposition) We were surprised at his strange behaviour. (obligatory preposition) Several other important changes may also affect the structure of the embedded clause during the gradual process of transition towards nominalisation (i.e. along the so-called ‘Clause Squish’): the loss of its independent intonational contour; the change of Tense, in order to express some relationship to the Predicate in the MC (3); the loss of Tense (1b) or of Tense and Aspect (1d, 1e) distinctions; the change of DO into Genitive Determiner (1f); the deletion of certain constituents under identity with elements in the MC (4). (3) [John knew] [he will win] �¨John knew [(that) he would win]. (Past in MC triggers Future-in-the-Past) (4) [I wanted] [I become a scientist] �¨I wanted [to become a scientist]. 1. THAT Clauses They are the most sentency, preserving most features of the independent sentence. Sentencehood of THAT Clauses is supported by the fact that they can have the same distribution as NPs. This actually demonstrates that they are non-phrases (in other words, THAT Clauses and NPs are mutually exclusive). Moreover, THAT Clauses undergo transformations that are typical of NPs: movement by passivisation (5a), the ‘pseudo-cleft’ test (5b), the ‘than-pattern’ test (5c). Yet, they differ from NPs in their behaviour in respect to Coordination, coordinated THAT Clauses in Subject position triggering agreement with the matrix V in the singular (5d). (5a) Scientists have demonstrated [that the artificial creation of tissues is possible].-->¨[That the artificial creation of tissues is possible] has been demonstrated by scientists. (5b) What scientists have demonstrated is [that the artificial creation of tissues is possible]. (5c) I noticed nothing else than [that the thief had a gun]. (5d) [That you successfully graduated] and [that you have an opportunity for a job] is wonderful. Extraposition followed by IT Insertion represents a transformational sequence frequently occurring in cases of THAT Clause embedding (and not only – see further). Thus, the THAT Clause Construction is produced by inserting the clause in – for instance – Subject position; then the clause undergoes extraposition (i.e. a rightward movement to the end); a gap appears, and, consequently, a formal Subject will be obligatorily introduced, namely the dummy Subject IT, anticipating the true Deep Structure Subject, which is the THAT Clause. (6) [That Helen was nervous] was obvious. -->was obvious [that Helen was

nervous] -->It was obvious [that Helen was nervous]. Generally, extraposition from Subject position seems to be optional. There are, however, patterns where extraposition is obligatory: with intransitive (existential) Vs like: seem, happen, occur, etc. (7) *[That they never contradict him] seems-->It seems [that they never contradict him]. The sequence Extraposition + IT Insertion is also obligatory with many THAT Clauses in Object position. (8) *We called [that he arrived late] regrettable -->We called it regrettable [that he arrived late]. A survey of the syntactic functions (i.e. distribution) of THAT Clauses has to take into consideration: the fact that the structure of the patterns is determined by the subcategorisation of certain Vs, adjectives or Ns (their ability to take an ‘abstract nominal’ – a clause rendering some state of affairs – as one of their arguments); the movement or deletion transformations that may obligatorily or optionally apply. THAT Clauses may have the following syntactic functions: 1) SUBJECT – a) Vs taking THAT Clauses as Subjects: intransitive Vs (seem, appear, happen, matter, occur, turn out, etc) (9a); psychological transitive Vs (alarm, bother, charm, hurt, please, tempt, etc) (9b); bisentential Vs (prove, show, imply, etc) (9c). b) Adjectives that take sentential Subjects: participial adjectives – from psychological Vs above – (alarming, charming, etc) (9d); “Modal” adjectives (certain, likely, possible, probable, etc) (9e); evaluative adjectives (good, bad, normal, odd, natural, fair, etc) (9f). c) Ns that take sentential Subjects: problem, fact, idea, surprise, miracle, (no) wonder, pity, etc (9g). (9a) It turned out [(that) he was a thief]. ([+ Extraposition] [± THAT Deletion]) (9b) [That she left without a word] distressed him. ([± Extraposition] [+ human DO]) (9c) [That they succeeded in their enterprise] proves [that the method is good]. (9d) [That he got the money] was amazing. ([± Extraposition]) (9e) It is probable [that no one will show up]. ([+ Extraposition]) (9f) It was clever of him [that he waited]. ([+ Extraposition]) (9g) It is a pity [that she failed the exam]. ([+ Extraposition]) 2) DIRECT OBJECT – a) Vs subcategorised for clausal DOs introduced by THAT: [+ THAT Deletion] (believe, mean, remember, suppose, etc) (10a); [- THAT Deletion] (deny, require, sense, etc) (10b). b) Vs that take a clausal DO and a PO or IO (/ – S-PNP/): communication Vs (tell, read, explain, etc) (10c); other Vs (allow, permit, suggest, etc) (10d). c) Vs that take a clausal DO and a [+ personal] PO: blame, beg, ask, request, etc (10e). (10a) I think [our strategy was clearly outlined]. (10b) They know it very well [that he is emotionally unstable]. ([+ Extraposition]) (10c) John promised me [that the car would be ready in time]. ([+ Dative Movement]) (10d) She had to admit to her colleagues [that she had been too ambitious]. ([+ Complex NP Shift]) (10e) He requests of them [that they reconsider their decision]. ([+ Complex NP Shift] [± passivisation]) 3) PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT – a) Vs that take a clausal PO: Vs like ask (for), confess (to), decide (on), insist (upon), hope (for), worry (about), etc (11a); Vs taking a [+ personal] DO and a clausal PO (/ – NP-S/) (accuse smb of, instruct smb in, warn smb

against / of, etc) (11b); Vs taking two POs (/ – PNP-S/) (argue with smb about, pray 56 to smb for, etc) (11c). b) Adjectives taking a clausal PO: afraid (of), annoyed (at), sorry (for), happy (about), etc (11d). Preposition deletion occurs in all cases. (11a) He complained [that he had been treated unfairly]. ([± Extraposition] [± THAT Deletion]) (11b) They accused the man [that he had murdered his wife]. ([± passivisation]) (11c) She agreed with him [that the expedition had been a disaster]. (11d) The students were afraid [that the final exam would be difficult]. 4) PREDICATIVE – Abstract Ns (non-complex Subject NPs) that may co-occur in equative sentences with a clausal Predicative: idea, fact, reason, claim, difficulty, etc (12). (12) The problem is [that we have no money]. 5) ATTRIBUTE – Abstract Ns that may take clausal (appositive) Attributes: idea, fact, feeling, sense, etc (13). (13) A strange sense [that she had the power over him] possessed her. ([+ Preposition Deletion]) In some cases, the deletion of the complementizer THAT is optional (see above). Nevertheless, deletion is obligatory if the Subject or Object Clause is questioned or relativised. (14) Who did you say [*that was coming]? On the other hand, deletion does not apply if the clause is in initial position (unextraposed Subject) (15a) or in topical, emphatic position (15b), if it is an extraposed Object (15c), and even when intervening material separates it from the MC (15d). (15a) [That he passed the exam] is astonishing. (15b) [That the prize was mine], I never knew. (15c) Joanna liked it [that Peter was so romantic]. (15d) He claimed, it is reported, [that he was our authorised dealer]. The Subjunctive usually occurs in Subject THAT Clauses with emotive Predicates in the MC (Vs, adjectives, Ns) (16a), and in Object THAT Clauses with matrix exercitive Vs of command or of permission, or with some Vs of communication (16b). (16a) It is necessary [that the experiment should be repeated]. (16b) Helen demanded [that I should stay there]. Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Discuss the hierarchichal ordering of Complement Clauses in terms of sentencehood and nouniness and point out the most important syntactic transformations undergone by the embedded clause towards nominalisation 2)Explain why THAT Clauses and NPs are mutually exclusive 3)Discuss and illustrate the distribution of THAT Clause 4)State the conditions under which Extraposition followed by IT insertion is obligatory. Supply your own examples 5)State the conditions under which the deletion of the complementizer THAT is obligatory , optional and blocked by supplying your own examples

Examples of exam question 1)True/False Infinitive clauses are more sentency than THAT clauses ans. F THAT clauses occur as predicatives in equative sentences with [+abstract NP] subjects ans. T 2)Multiple choice Specify the syntactic function of the embedded clause " I was fully aware that she was lying to me" a)Direct object b)Predicative c)Adverbial of Result d)Prepositional object ans. d Specify whether the deletion of the complementizer THAT is obligatory a)If the object clause is questioned b)If the subject clause is unextraposed c)If the clause is an extraposed object ans. a VIII)Infinitive clauses vs. THAT clauses. Characteristic features of Infinitive constructions. Changes undergone by the subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses; The distribution of Infinitive constructions, Classes of SSR and SOR triggers; 2. Infinitive Clauses Some NP positions within Complex Sentences can be filled by sentential entities, and the latter may change into an Infinitive Clause. Infinitive Clauses are less sentency and more nouny than THAT Clauses, and this is mainly due to the loss of Tense distinctions. Yet, they still exhibit certain sentential features: like Finite Sentences, they can be negated and passivised (17a); they allow Extraposition + IT Insertion in a way similar to THAT Clauses (17b); the Deep Structure preposition is deleted (17c); aspectual distinctions are retained (17d). (17a) He was disappointed [not to be nominated]. (both negated and passivised) (17b) It would be a disaster [for him to marry her now]. (17c) She was delighted [to find him there]. (17d) He is pleased [to be making progresses]. The Infinitive Complement can replace Indicative or Subjunctive Clauses: (18) I am glad [that I have met you]. -->I am glad [to have met you]. I asked him [that he should leave]. -->I asked him [to leave].

The characteristic marker of such constructions is the complementizer TO (with the variants FOR-TO, TO). Important changes affect the Subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses. It is assumed that they have underlying Subjects, i.e. that they are S complements, and not VP complements. The underlying Subject suffers modifications of form or it is lost in Surface Structure. 1) When the Subject is retained in Surface Structure: a) it is preceded by FOR and acquires Accusative form (the FOR-TO Infinitive Construction): (19) It is very unwise [for him to borrow so much money]. b) it can become a member of the matrix clause, functioning as Subject or Object (TO Complementation) These constructions are produced by Raising, i.e. a constituent of a Subordinate (of lower rank) becomes a constituent of the MC. - When the Subject of the Complement Clause is raised to Subject position in the MC, the transformation is called Subject-to-Subject Raising (SSR). The resulting pattern is (according to traditional grammars) the Nominative + Infinitive Construction: (20) It seems [that he is very selfish]. -->He seems [to be very selfish]. - When the Subject of the Complement Clause is raised to Object position in the MC, the transformation is called Subject-to-Object Raising (SOR). Its result is the Accusative + Infinitive Construction: (21) They found [that he was very intelligent].-->They found him [to be very intelligent]. 2) When the Subject is missing in Surface Structure: a) it is deleted because it is identical with some NP (Subject, Object) in the MC (deletion under identity / Equi NP Deletion – Subject or Object Control): (22) She tried [to improve her pronunciation]. (Su Control) I want him [to improve his pronunciation]. (Object Control) b) it is deleted because it is semantically indefinite (deletion under indefiniteness / ‘One’ Deletion): (23) It is impossible [to argue with him]. (“for someone / anyone”) The distribution of Infinitive Constructions (in patterns which do not involve Raising – FOR-TO Complementation –) consists in the following inventory of syntactic functions: 59 1) SUBJECT – a) With matrix Predicates including adjectives (probable, common, essential, etc) (24a) or Ns (fun, pleasure, necessity, etc) (24b), and with some transitive Vs (show, prove, need, etc) (24c). (24a) It is highly unlikely [for her to agree with him]. (24b) [To talk to her] is a real pleasure. (24c) [To succeed in that career] needs sustained effort. (Complement Su has to be deleted) b) With matrix Predicates that take an IO (which can be identical with the Complement Subject – 25a – or not – 25b –, the latter being deleted or, respectively, preserved). (25a) It is hard for me [to figure him out]. It is kind of them [to do that for us].

(25b) It would be better for all of us [for you to tell him]. c) A special attention deserve the so-called Tough Movement (TM) patterns. TM occurs with adjectives (easy, difficult, tough, nice, etc) or with Ns (pleasure, delight, joy, etc), and it resides in the promotion of the initial Object (DO, PO, IO) in the Subordinate as Subject of the MC, provided that the Subject of the Subordinate has been previously deleted. (26) It is easy [to get along with Jane]-->Jane is easy [to get along with]. It was hard for Tom [to figure out the solution] --> The solution was hard for Tom [to figure out]. (the ‘for-NP’ is a matrix IO) 2) OBJECT – a) As DO, the Infinitive Construction may occur in patterns with transitive Vs (forget, try, attempt, manage, love, like, begin, continue, etc). (27) She intends [to abandon the plan]. (Su is normally deleted under identity – Su Control) We would love [for you to spend more time with us]. (non-identical Subjects, American English) This law enabled many people [to buy land]. (identity between MC DO and Complement Su – Object Control) b) Also as DO, the construction may occur with a group of transitive Vs optionally deleting BE in the Complement Clause (appoint, choose, nominate, elect, etc), and thus triggering structures with Object Complement, provided that there is an identity between the DO in the MC and the Complement Subject. (28) They chose him [to be president]. -->They chose him (as) president. (Object Complement) c) As DO with Vs also taking a IO or PO, the Infinitive Construction is possible only if there is an identity between the IO or PO in the MC and the Complement Subject. (29) I reminded him [to come a little later than usual]. (IO – Dative Movement) We may rely on him [to solve the problem]. (PO) d) As PO, the construction occurs with Vs (apply for, persist in, shudder at, care for, consent to, etc) (30a) or adjectives (anxious about, afraid of, eager to, etc) (30b). The preposition is always deleted. (30a) He consented [for John to go there]. (30b) We were anxious [for our son to return]. 3) PREDICATIVE – The Complement Subject may be preserved or deleted (under identity, indefiniteness). (31) The most important thing is [for you to look at the whole picture]. His favourite pastime is [to make small toys]. (identity) [To admire oneself too much] is [to deceive oneself]. (indefiniteness) 4) ADVERBIAL – a) Of Purpose (the clause may be introduced by expressions signalling purpose or not): (32) She lied [on purpose to protect him]. She sent them away [in order / so as to have some peace]. They went out [to breathe some fresh air]. b) There are various patterns of Result: with adjectives determined by the quantifiers enough or too, which have a positive or, respectively, negative ability element incorporated in their meaning (33a); patterns based on a comparative structure, paralleling certain THAT Clauses as Adverbial of Result (33b); patterns

introduced by only, and expressing in many (but not all) cases a disappointing result (33c); other patterns of result (33d). (33a)He was considered clever enough [to be entrusted with such a job]. The river is too deep [for us to wade across it]. (33b) He was so kind as [to show me the way]. =~He was so kind [that he showed me the way]. (33c) He applied for the job [only to be turned down]. vs: They hurried to the house [only to find it happy]. (33d) Who are we [to judge him so mercilessly]?!... c) There are also various patterns combining Reason with a Conditional meaning: (34) You are a fool [to do it]. 5) ATTRIBUTE – Non-Finite RCs can be also regarded as Infinitive Clauses functioning Attributively. The relative pronoun may be retained (35a) or not (35b). They often occur with Ns like: idea, right, instinct, ability, capacity, power, wish, desire, etc (35c). (35a) I bought a toy [with which to play]. (35b) I found a man [to talk to]. (35c) You have no right [to do that]. Patterns which involve Raising (TO Complementation) do not evince an inventory of syntactic functions, because after Raising the embedded clause ceases to bear any relation to the matrix V (i.e. it becomes a “chomeur”), as a consequence of the fact that the promoted element assumes its grammatical relation. Thus, the term raised from a Subject Clause will become Subject in the MC, and, respectively, the term raised from an Object Clause will become Object in the MC. The Nominative + Infinitive Construction is the direct result of SSR or the result of passivising the MC after SOR. (36) She seems to be honest. She is believed to be honest. The following classes of SSR Triggers have to be distinguished: 1) Some active intransitive Vs (“A(ppear) Vs”): appear, seem, happen, occur, prove, turn out and a small group of adjectives: likely, unlikely, sure, certain (37a). In some cases, BE Deletion may occur (37b). (37a) He happens to know Japanese. Are they likely to have heard the news? (37b) She appeared ignorant. (Nominative + Subject Complement pattern) 2) Inchoative Vs: become, come, grow, get, remain, go, stay. (38) You will grow to adore this neighbourhood. 3) Aspectual Vs: begin, continue, start, stop, commence (when occurring in intransitive configurations, and thus having non-agentive meaning). Formal Subjects usually occur. (39) It was beginning to drizzle when he left. There continued to be cases of bribery. 4) The verbal phrases had better and had best, which are followed by a Naked Infinitive (without TO). (40) There had better be no mistakes in those documents. 5) Some BE + adjective combinations: to be about to, to be bound to, to be apt to, to be supposed to. (41) It is going to rain.

That building is going to collapse. 6) Vs of physical perception (accidental, non-intended, non-durative perception): see, hear, feel. (42) We heard our neighbour unlock his door. (active construction, Naked Infinitive) vs: He was heard to unlock his door. (passive, Long Infinitive) The Accusative + Infinitive Construction is the direct result of SOR. (43) We believe him to be reliable. The following classes of SOR Triggers have to be distinguished: 1) Vs of propositional attitude – of judgement and mental perception – (“B(elieve) Vs”): believe, consider, hold, think, guess, deny, conclude, etc. BE Deletion may occur (44a). For regard, recognise, feel, etc the propositional constituent is obligatory (44b). For say, admit, certify, etc the raised NP must be removed from post-verbal position (44c). (44a) They found the man (to be) insane. (44b) He regards them as inferior. (vs: *He regards them.) (44c) She is said to be handy. 2) Causative Vs: cause, set, occasion, get, make, have, let (the last three followed by a Naked Infinitive). (45) I will have them re-write the report. You must get it seen to. (BE Deletion) 3) Illocutionary Vs of permission and command: allow, permit, command, order, instruct, etc. (46) We forbade the personnel use this door. 4) Vs of liking and disliking: like, love, prefer, want, wish, expect, hate, etc. (47) I should like it done. (BE Deletion) 5) Vs of physical perception: see, hear, listen, watch, perceive, etc. (48) The nurse watched the young mother feed the baby. (active construction, Naked Infinitive) Both SSR and SOR can be frequently followed by BE Deletion. The deleted BE may be a progressive BE, a passive BE or a copula. After SOR, the resulting constructions are: a) Accusative + Present participle (progressive BE Deletion) (49a); b) Accusative + Past Participle (passive BE Deletion) (49b); c) Accusative + (Derived) Object Complement (copular BE Deletion) (49c). (49a) Jane saw her husband cooking. (49b) She had her car fixed. (49c) She considers him an ordinary man. The application of MC passivisation to these constructions, or of SSR and BE Deletion, derives the corresponding Nominative + V constructions: a’) Nominative + Present participle (progressive BE Deletion) (50a); b’) Nominative + Past Participle (passive BE Deletion) (50b); c’) Nominative + (Derived) Subject Complement (copular BE Deletion) (50c). (50a) The manager was heard mentioning this aspect. (50b) The car was found abandoned by the thieves. (50c) He was considered an ordinary man. Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Discriminate between THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses in terms of their syntactic

behaviour 2)Discuss the changes undergone by the Subject of Infinitive Complement Clauses. Illustrate the modifications with examples of your own 3)Discuss the distribution of Infinitive constructions in patterns which involve Raising 4)Discuss the distribution of Infinitive constructions in patterns which do not involve Raising 5)Discuss and illustrate the main classes of SSR triggers 6)Discuss and illustrate the concept of Tough Movement 7)Discuss and illustrate the main classes of SOR triggers 8)State the conditions under which BE Deletion occurs and the types of the deleted BE Examples of exam questions 1)True/False The Nominative+Infinitive pattern is the result of passivising the MC after SSR ans. F In a passive construction verbs of non-durative perception are followed by a Bare Infinitive ans F Inchoative verbs may function as SSR triggers ans T 2)Multiple choice Specify the syntactic function of the infinitive construction "He was so naive as to give them the jewellery " a)Prepositional object b)Adverbial of manner c)Predicative d)Adverbial of Purpose e)Adverbial of Result ans. e 3)Specify the resulting construction(s) after SOR a)Accusative+Past Participle b)Nominative+Past Participle c)Accusative+Present Participle d)Nominative+ Derived Subject Complement ans a,c Specify whether verbs of permission and command may function as a)SSR triggers b)SOR triggers c)verb of subject control ans b

IX)Gerundial clauses vs THAT clauses and Infinitive clauses. Types of Gerundial constructions. Transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses. The distribution of Gerundial Clauses. Gerund vs Infinitive. Gerund vs Participles 3. Gerundial Clauses Gerunds are the most nouny Complement Clauses, as they evince more nominal features than THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses. Thus, with them preposition deletion does not apply (51a), Complex NP Shift applies freely (51b), and they are allowed as “internal clauses” (51c). Nevertheless, conjoined -ING Constructions (especially Acc + -ing ones) still trigger agreement with the V in the singular (51d), in accordance to their sentential features. (51a) I was surprised at [your knowing all about this]. (51b) I found disgraceful [his lying to us like that]. (51c) Could [his being so drunk] have any significance? (51d) [Him winning] and [you losing] is surprising. There are some significant differences between the two already identified types of Gerundial Constructions. Formally, with the Half-Gerund the Subject takes the Accusative case, whereas in case of the Full-Gerund it takes the Genitive case. In fact, these constructions can be regarded as having “discontinuous complementizers”: Acc...-ing and Poss...-ing. Semantically, the Half-Gerund has an event interpretation (52a), while the Full-Gerund has a manner interpretation (52b). (52a) The entire staff discussed about [Miller doing business with us]. (the event of Miller doing this) (52b) The entire staff discussed about [Miller’s doing business with us]. (Miller’s manner of doing this) Gerundial Clauses may undergo Extraposition + IT Insertion: (53) It is no use [talking to him about this]. The Subject of the Gerundial Clause may be sometimes deleted under co-referentiality with some NP in the MC (54a) or under indefiniteness (54b). (54a) I hate [getting up so early]. (Su Control) I admire you for [being so firm]. (Object Control) (54b) [Losing things] is a sign of negligence. The distribution of Half (I) and Full (II) Gerund Clauses consists in the following inventory of syntactic functions: 1) SUBJECT – It is frequently unextraposed, sometimes the Complement Subject being deleted. (55) [You discussing the matter with her] upset me. (I) [His letting the car kill him] was obvious. (II) [Gambling] is his favourite pastime. (Su is deleted under co-referentiality) 2) DIRECT OBJECT – If the DO Clause is very long, extraposition may occur. Its Subject may be deleted.

(56) My parents didn’t like [me racing]. (I) I can’t forgive [his being rude to my mother]. (II) She intended [sending for more food]. (Su is deleted under indefiniteness) She found it somehow strange at first [living in that part of the country]. (Extraposition, Su Control) 3) PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT – When the Complement Subject is a N, the Half-Gerund is more frequent; the Full-Gerund is more common when the Complement Subject is a pronoun. The preposition is retained. (57) We insisted on [the students attending all courses]. (I) His arrogant attitude resulted in [his finding himself deserted by everybody]. (II) 4) PREDICATIVE – The Complement Subject may be sometimes deleted. (58) What I do not understand is [you suddenly turning against me]. (I) The only reason for selling this house is [the owner’s getting a very expensive car]. (II) 5) ATTRIBUTE – The same Ns taking other types of Clausal Attributes are to be found with Gerunds, too. (59) There was no record of [the method ever having been tested]. (I) The idea of [his going to college] annoyed them. (II) A special mention deserve Gerunds with passive meaning (not form). They occur with Vs like: need, bear, deserve, stand, take, want, etc, with worth, and with the preposition beyond ¡Ö“past”. (60) The cottage would need [looking after]. This point is worth [discussing]. They were beyond [saving]. Gerund vs. Infinitive There are adjectives or verbs that can occur both with gerunds and infinitives. These patterns change their meaning according to the grammatical information incorporated in the construction they are followed by. The differences in meaning are the following 1)The verb is followed by a gerund . The construction expresses an event happening in the past , anterior to the one expressed in the main clause. The gerund is past-oriented e.g. I can't remember paying the telephone bill He can't forget dancing with her at the Fancy Dress Ball I regret saying he is to blame for our failure 2)The verb is followed by an infinitive. The construction expresses an event that is going to take place in the future. The infinitive is future-oriented, the event is posterior to the one expressed in the main clause. e.g. Remember/Don't forget to pay the telephone bill I regret to say he is to blame for our failure There are interesting changes of meaning when verbs such as stop, go on, try, mean are combined both with an infinitive and a gerund When the verbs want and need with a [-human] subject are followed by a gerund or a passive infinitive the two patterns acquire the same reading e.g. Your shoes need/want cleaning Your shoes neeld/want to be cleaned

Gerund vs. Participles The differences between participles and gerunds are the following 1)Participles can occur in continuous, perfect or passive tense forms while Gerunds cannot occur in tense forms e.g. The report is being typed now The report has been typed 2)Gerund are preceded by prepositions while participles are preceded by conjunctions e.g. She insisted on our joining the team (Gerund) While vacuuming the room she always sings her favourite song (Present Participle) 3)Gerunds function as direct and prepositional objects while participles occur as objects only in dependent constructions (Accusative+Participle) e.g.He started climbing the oak-tree(Gerund-DO) He was amazed at her knowing so much about computers (gerund+PO) I heard him playing the violin (Accusative+Participle) 4)When gerunds function as attributes the pattern is paraphrasable by means of the preposition for e.g. A flying saucer= a saucer used for flying When participles function as attributes the pattern is paraphrasable by who/that/which is+V(ing) e.g.the sleeping child= the child who is sleeping Topics for further discussion and self-assesment tests 1)Discuss the opposition Gerundial Clauses vs. THAT Clauses and Infinitive Clauses in terms of their nouniness 2)Discuss the syntactic and semantic differences between the two types of Gerundial Constructions 3)Give a full description of the distribution of the Gerundial Clauses 4)Discuss the possible transformations undergone by Gerundial Clauses 5)Disambiguate between the Present Participle and the Gerund 6)State the differences between the patterns with the infinitive and those with the gerund in terms of their semantic interpretation Examples of exam questions 1)True/False Extraposition+ IT insertion is blocked with Gerundial Clauses ans. F The Half-Gerund has an event interpretation ans.T Participles cannot occur after prepositions ans. T The object of the Gerundial Clause is deleted under indefiniteness ans.F 2)Multiple choice Identify the syntactic function of the Gerundial Clause

"Do you really hope for him keeping his promise?" a)Direct object b)Attributive c)Predicative d)Prepositional object ans.d Specify whether the -ing form in the NP "swimming pool" is : a) a Gerund b) a Participle c) verbal noun ans. a 3) Matching Match the Gerundial Clauses in the first column with the appropriate syntactic function in the second one 1)It's no use crying over spilt milk 2)Don't start insisting on it again 3)I can't help laughing at her attitude 4)They insisted on our joining their team a)Direct object b)Attributive c)Prepositional object d)Predicative e)Subject ans.1e, 2a, 3a, 4c .