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Earthmoving Operations

Contents

Page

PREFACE .................................................................................................................. v

Chapter 1

MANAGING EARTHMOVING OPERATIONS ....................................................... 1-1

Project Management ............................................................................................... 1-1Equipment Selection ............................................................................................... 1-1

Production Estimates .............................................................................................. 1-1

Material Considerations .......................................................................................... 1-2

Zones Of Operation ................................................................................................ 1-6

Chapter 2

DOZERS ................................................................................................................. 2-1

Description .............................................................................................................. 2-1

Blades ..................................................................................................................... 2-2

Clearing and Grubbing Operations ......................................................................... 2-3

Sidehill Excavations ................................................................................................ 2-9Operation Techniques ........................................................................................... 2-11

Dozer Production Estimates ................................................................................. 2-18

Ripping Production Estimates ............................................................................... 2-23

Safety Precautions ................................................................................................ 2-26

Chapter 3

SCRAPERS ............................................................................................................ 3-1

Description .............................................................................................................. 3-1

Production Cycle ..................................................................................................... 3-2

Production Estimates .............................................................................................. 3-9

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

*This publication supersedes FM 5-434, 26 August 1994, and FM 5-164, 30 August 1974.

Field Manual *FM 5-434No. 5-434 Headquarters

Department of the Army

Washington, DC 15 JUNE 2000


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FM 5-434

ii

Page

Chapter 4 GRADERS ............................................................................................................. 4-1

Grader Components ............................................................................................... 4-1

Road and Ditch Construction ................................................................................. 4-2

Earth- and Gravel-Road Maintenance ................................................................... 4-8

Snow Removal ..................................................................................................... 4-10

Asphalt Mixing ...................................................................................................... 4-10

Operation Techniques and Tips ........................................................................... 4-11

Production Estimates ........................................................................................... 4-14

Safety ................................................................................................................... 4-15

Chapter 5 LOADERS .............................................................................................................. 5-1

Description ............................................................................................................. 5-1

Attachments ........................................................................................................... 5-1

Use ......................................................................................................................... 5-3

Selection ................................................................................................................ 5-3

Operation ............................................................................................................... 5-3

Production Estimates ............................................................................................. 5-8

Safety ................................................................................................................... 5-10

Chapter 6 FORKLIFTS ........................................................................................................... 6-1

Use ......................................................................................................................... 6-1

Operation Techniques ............................................................................................ 6-1

Safety ..................................................................................................................... 6-2

Chapter 7 CRANES ................................................................................................................ 7-1

Basic Crane Unit .................................................................................................... 7-1

Hoisting Operations ................................................................................................ 7-7

Pile Driver ............................................................................................................. 7-11

Clamshell ............................................................................................................. 7-12

Dragline ................................................................................................................ 7-15

Safety ................................................................................................................... 7-20

Chapter 8 HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS ................................................................................ 8-1

Description ............................................................................................................. 8-1

Excavation Techniques .......................................................................................... 8-2

Operation Techniques ............................................................................................ 8-3

Small Emplacement Excavator with a Loader Bucket ............................................ 8-4

Track-Mounted Excavator ...................................................................................... 8-8

Production Estimates ............................................................................................. 8-8


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FM 5-434

iii

Page

Chapter 9 AIR COMPRESSORS AND PNEUMATIC TOOLS ............................................... 9-1

Air Compressors .................................................................................................... 9-1

Compressed-Air Uses ............................................................................................ 9-4

Air Manifolds .......................................................................................................... 9-5

Pneumatic Tools .................................................................................................... 9-6

Safety ................................................................................................................... 9-17

Chapter 10 HAULING EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................... 10-1

Dump Trucks ........................................................................................................ 10-1

Equipment Trailers ............................................................................................... 10-6

Chapter 11 SOIL-PROCESSING AND COMPACTION ......................................................... 11-1

Soil Processing .................................................................................................... 11-1

Soil Compaction ................................................................................................... 11-7

Chapter 12 ROAD SURFACING ............................................................................................ 12-1

Surface Treatment ............................................................................................... 12-1

Surfacing Equipment ............................................................................................ 12-1

In-Place Mixing Equipment .................................................................................. 12-8

Bitumen Handling and Dedrumming Equipment .................................................. 12-9

Support Equipment ............................................................................................ 12-10

Chapter 13 SAFETY ............................................................................................................... 13-1

Safety Program .................................................................................................... 13-1

General Safety Rules ........................................................................................... 13-1

Operator Indoctrination ........................................................................................ 13-2

Operator Qualifications and Requirements .......................................................... 13-2

Equipment Inspection ........................................................................................... 13-2

Repairs and Maintenance .................................................................................... 13-2

Guards and Safety Devices ................................................................................. 13-3

Signals ................................................................................................................. 13-3

Ropes, Cables, and Chains ................................................................................. 13-3

Equipment Loading .............................................................................................. 13-6

Equipment Transporting ....................................................................................... 13-7

Night Operations .................................................................................................. 13-7Excavations .......................................................................................................... 13-7

Chapter 14 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ..................................................................... 14-1

Preoperations Checklist ....................................................................................... 14-1

Personnel-Preparation Checklist .......................................................................... 14-2


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FM 5-434

iv

Page

Spill-Response Plan ............................................................................................. 14-2

APPENDIX A METRIC CONVERSION CHART ...........................................................................A-1

GLOSSARY ......................................................................................... GLOSSARY-1

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................BIBLIOGRAPHY-1

INDEX ........................................................................................................................1


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v

PrefaceThis field manual (FM) is a guide for engineer personnel responsible for planning,

designing, and constructing ea rthw orks in t he thea ter of operations. I t gives estimated

production rates, characteristics, operation techniques, and soil considerations for

eart hmoving equipment . This guide sh ould be used to help select th e most economical

a nd effective equipment for each individua l operat ion.

This ma nua l discusses the complete process of estima ting eq uipment production ra tes.

However, users of this ma nua l a re encouraged to use their experience a nd da ta from

other projects in estima ting production rat es.

The material in this manual applies to all construction equipment regardless of make

or model. The equipment used in this manual are examples only. Information for pro-

duction calculations should be obtained from the operator and maintenance manuals

for the ma ke and m odel of the equipment being used.

Appendi x A cont ain s an En glish-to-metric measur ement conversion cha rt .

The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommenda-

tions on Depa rtm ent of th e Army (DA) Form 2028 directly t o Unit ed Sta tes Army E ngi-

neer School (USAES), ATTN: ATSE-DOT-DD, Directorate of Training, 320 Engineer

Loop S uite 336, F ort Leona rd Wood, Missour i 65473-8929.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer

exclusively to men.


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FM 5-434

1-2 Managing Earthmoving Operations

equipment production-estima ting procedures in t he a ppropriat e chapters in

th is ma nual .)

PRODUCTION-RATE FORMULA

1-4. The most convenient a nd u seful uni t of work doneand un i t o f t im eto use

in calculating productivity for a particular piece of equipment or a particularjob is a function of the specific work-task being analyzed. To make accurate

a nd mea ningful compa risons an d conclusions a bout production, i t is best to

use standa rdized terms.

Production rate. The entire expression is a time-related productionra te. I t can be cubic ya rds per hour, tons per shi f t (a lso indica te th e

dura tion of the shift) , or feet of ditch per hour.

Unit of work done. This denotes the unit of production

accomplished. I t can be the volume or weight of th e ma teria l moved,

th e number o f p ieces of ma ter i a l cu t , th e d i s tan ce t ra ve led , or a ny

similar m easur ement of production.

Unit of time.This denotes an a rbitra ry t ime unit such a s a minute,

an hour, a 10-hour shi f t , a day, or any other convenient durat ion in

wh ich t he unit of work done is accomplished.

TIME-REQUIRED FORMULA

1-5. The inverse of the production-rate formula is sometimes useful when

schedul ing a pro ject because i t de f ines the t ime requi r ed to a ccomplish a n

arbi tra ry am ount of work.

NOTE: Express the time required in units such as hours per 1,000 cubicyards, hours per acre, days per acre, or minutes per foot of ditch.

MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS1-6. Depending on wh ere a ma teria l is considered in t he const ruction process,

dur ing excava t ion versus a f ter compac t ion , the same mater i a l weight w i l l

occupy different volumes (Fi gur e 1-1).Ma ter i a l vo lume can be mea sured in

one of three sta tes:

Bank cubic yard (BCY).A B CY is 1 cubic yard of ma teria l as it l iesin its nat ura l/undistu rbed sta te.

Loose cubic yard (LCY). A LCY is 1 cubic yard of material after itha s been dist urbed by an excava tion process.

Compacted cubic yard (CCY). A CCY is 1 cubic yard of materiala fter compa ction.

Production rate unit of work doneunit of time

--------------------------------------------------=

Time required unit of timeunit of work done--------------------------------------------------=


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FM 5-434

Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-3

Figure 1-1. Material-Volume Changes Caused by Construction Processes

1-7. When manipulating the material in the construction process, its volume

changes.(Ta bles 1-1 a nd1-2, pa ge 1-4, give material-volume conversion and

load factors.) The prime question for a n ea rt hmover is about th e na tur e of the

m a t e r i a l s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ; f or e x a m p l e , h ow e a s y i s i t t o m o v e? F or

ear t hmoving opera t ions , ma ter i a l i s p laced in th ree ca tegor iesrock, soi l

(common ea rt h), a nd u nclassif ied.

Rock. Rock is a materia l that ordinary earthmoving equipmentcannot r emove. Fra cturing rock requires dri l ling a nd blast ing. Af ter

blasting, use excavators to load the rock fragments into haul units for

removal.

Soil.Soils a re classif ied by pa rticle-size distribution a nd cohesiveness.

For instan ce, gravel and sa nds ha ve blocky-sha ped par t ic les and a ren o n c o h e s i v e , w h i l e c l a y h a s s m a l l , p l a t y - s h a p e d p a r t i c l e s a n d i s

cohes ive . Al though r ipping equipment ma y be necessary to loosen

consolidated deposits, soil removal does not require using explosives.

Unclassified.The unclassified (rock-soil) combination is the mostcommon ma teria l found thr oughout t he world . I t is a mixture of rock

and soi l materia ls .

SOIL PROPERTIES

1 -8 . I n a n e a r t h m o v i n g o pe r a t i on , t h o r o u g h l y a n a l y z e t h e m a t e r i a l 's

p r o pe r t i e s (l oa d a b i l it y , m o is t u r e c on t e n t , p e r ce n t a g e of s w e ll , a n d

compa ctabi l i ty) and incorpora te t his informa tion into th e constr uct ion plan .

Soil prepara tion and compaction requirements a re discussed in Chapter 11.

Loadability

1 -9 . L oa d a b i li t y i s a g e n e r a l m a t e r i a l p r o p er t y o r c h a r a c t e r i st i c . I f t h e

ma ter ia l i s easy t o dig an d load , it ha s h igh loa dab i l i ty . Converse ly , i f the

ma teria l is diff icult to dig and load, i t ha s low loada bility. Certa in types of clay

and loam are ea sy to doze or loa d into a scraper f rom t heir natu ral s t a t e .

1.25 cubic yards after

digging (LCY)1 cubic yard in natural

conditions (BCY)

0.9 cubic yards after

compaction (CCY)


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FM 5-434


Moisture Content

1-10. Moistur e content is a very import an t fa ctor in eart hmoving work since

moisture af fects a soi l s unit weight and handling properties . All soi l in i ts

na tur a l s t a t e con t a i ns s om e m oi s tu r e . The am ount o f m o is tu r e r e t a i ne d

depends on the wea ther , t he d ra ina ge , and t he so il s re ten t ion proper t ies .

M e ch a n i c a l o r ch e m i c a l t r e a t m e n t c a n s o m e t i m e s c h a n g e t h e m oi s t u r e

cont ent of a soi l . Refer toCh apter 11 f or in forma t ion about increa s ing and

decreas ing t he soil s m oistur e cont ent.

Table 1-1. Material Volume Conversion Factors

Converted To

Material Type Converted From Bank (In Place) Loose Compacted

Sand or gravel Bank (in place)LooseCompacted

0.901.05

1.111.17

0.950.86

Loam(common earth) Bank (in place)LooseCompacted

0.801.11

1.251.39

0.900.72

Clay Bank (in place)LooseCompacted

0.701.11

1.431.59

0.900.63

Rock (blasted) Bank (in place)LooseCompacted

0.670.77

1.501.15

1.300.87

Coral(comparableto lime rock)

Bank (in place)LooseCompacted

0.670.77

1.501.15

1.300.87

Table 1-2. Material Weight, Swell Percentages, and Load Factors

Material Type

Loose(Pounds PerCubic Yards)

Swell(Percent) Load Factor

Bank(Pounds PerCubic Yard)

CindersClay, dryClay, wetEarth (loam or silt), dryEarth (loam or silt), wetGravel, dryGravel, wetSand, drySand, wetShale (soft rock)

Trap rock

800 to 1,2001,700 to 2,0002,400 to 3,0001,900 to 2,2002,800 to 3,2002,700 to 3,0002,800 to 3,1002,600 to 2,9002,800 to 3,1002,400 to 2,700

2,700 to 3,500

40 to 554040

15 to 3525

10 to 1510 to 1510 to 1510 to 15

65

50

0.65 to 0.720.720.72

0.74 to 0.870.80

0.87 to 0.910.87 to 0.910.87 to 0.910.87 to 0.91

0.60

0.66

1,100 to 1,8602,360 to 2,7803,360 to 4,2002,180 to 2,9803,500 to 4,0002,980 to 3,4503,080 to 3,5602,860 to 3,3403,080 to 3,5604,000 to 4,500

4,100 to 5,300NOTE: The above numbers are averages for common materials. Weights and load

factors vary with such factors as grain size, moisture content, and degree of

compaction. If an exact weight for a specific material must be determined, run a test

on a sample of that particular material.


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FM 5-434

Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-5

Percentage of Swell

1-11. Most ea rth an d rock ma terials sw ell wh en removed from their na tura l

r e s t i ng p l a c e . The v o lum e e x pand s b e ca us e o f v o i d s cr e a t e d d ur i ng t he

exca va t ion process . Af te r es ta b l i shing th e genera l clas s i f i ca t ion o f a so i l ,

est ima te th e percent a ge of swell . Express swell as a percenta ge increase involume (Tabl e 1-2). For exam ple, th e swell of dry clay is 40 percent , w hich

means that 1 cubic yard of clay in the bank state will f i l l a space of 1.4 cubic

ya rds in a loosened sta te. Est imat e the swell of a soil by referring to a ta ble of

material properties such as Tabl e 1-2.

Compactability

1-12. In earthmoving work, it is common to compact soil to a higher density

tha n i t wa s in i ts n at ura l s ta te . This is because th ere is a correlat ion betw een

higher density a nd increased strengt h, reduced settlement, improved bearing

ca pac i ty , a nd lower permeabi l i ty . The project s peci f ica t ions w i l l s ta te th e

density requirements.

SOIL WEIGHT

1-13. Soil weight affects the performance of the equipment. To estimate the

equipment r equirement s of a job a ccura te ly , the unit w eight of th e mat erial

be ing moved must be known. S oi l we ight a f fects how d ozers push, g ra ders

ca st, a nd scrapers load the ma teria l. Assume tha t t he volumetric ca pacity of a

s c r ape r i s 25 cub i c y a r d s a nd th a t i t h a s a r a t e d l oa d c apac i t y o f 50 ,0 00

pounds. I f the ma terial being carried is re lat ively l ight (such a s cinder), the

load wil l exceed the volumetric capaci ty of the scraper before reaching the

gra vimetric capa city. Conversely, if the loa d is gravel (w hich may w eigh more

th an 3 ,000 pounds per cub ic ya rd) , it w i l l exceed t he g ra v imetr ic ca pac i ty

before reaching the volumetric capacity. SeeT able 1-2 for t he unit w eight of

specific ma terials.

NOTE: The same material weight will occupy different volumes inBCY, LCY, and CCY. In an earthmoving operation, the basic unit ofcomparison is usually BCY. Also, consider the material in its loose

state (the volume of the load). Ta b le 1-1 gives average material conver-sion factors for earth-volume changes.

LOAD FACTOR

1-14. U se a load fa ctor (seeT abl e 1-2) to convert t he volume of LCY mea sured

t o B C Y m e a s u r e d ( ). U s e s im i l a r f a c t o r s w h e n

converting ma teria l to a compacted st a te. The fa ctors depend on th e degree of

compaction. Compute the load fa ctor a s follows:

In this case, the load factor for dry clay is 0.72. This means that if a scraper is

carr ying 25 LCY of dry clay , it is ca rry ing 18 B CY (25 x 0.72).

LCY load factor BCY=

If 1 cubic yard of clay (bank state) 1.4 cubic yards of clay (loose state),

then 1 cubic yard of clay (loose state) 11.4--------or 0.72 cubic yard of clay (bank state).=

=


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FM 5-434


ZONES OF OPERATION1-15 . The re la t ionship o f spec i f ic zones o f opera t ion to var ious types o f

eart hmoving equipment is significant when selecting ear thmoving equipment.

A ma ss diagra m gra phical ly depicts how ma terials should be moved a nd is a

good tool for determining t he zones of opera tion. Ma ss dia gra ms a re explained

i n F M 5 -4 30 -0 0 -1 . The r e a r e t h r e e z one s o f ope r a t i on to c ons i d e r on a

construction project.

POWER ZONE

1-16. In the power zone, maximum power is required to overcome adverse site

or job conditions. Such conditions include rough terrain, steep slopes, pioneer

ope r a t i ons , or e x t r e m e l y he av y l oa d s . The w or k i n t he s e a r e a s r e q u i r e s

craw ler tra ctors th at can develop high dra w bar pull at s low speeds. In t hese

ad verse conditions, the more tra ction a tr a ctor develops, the more likely it w ill

reach its full potentia l.

SLOW-SPEED HAULING ZONE

1-17. The slow-speed ha uling zone is s imila r t o the power zone since power ,more tha n speed , i s t he essent ia l f ac tor . S i te cond i t ions ar e s l ight ly bet t e r

t h a n i n t h e p o w e r z o n e, a n d t h e h a u l d i s t a n c e is s h o r t . S i n c e i m pr o v ed

condit ions g ive the dozer more power, and distances are too short for most

scrapers to build up suf f ic ient momentum to shif t into higher speeds, both

m ac h i ne s ac h i ev e the s a m e s pee d . C ons id e r a t i ons th a t d e te r m ine a s l ow -

speed ha uling zone are a s follow s:

The ground cond i t ions do no t permit r a p id t rave l and the movement

dista nce of th e ma teria l is beyond economica l dozing operat ions.

The haul d is tances a re not long enough to permi t scrapers to t r a vel a t

high speeds.

HIGH-SPEED HAULING ZONE1-18. In t he high-speed ha ul ing zone, const ruct ion ha s progressed to w here

ground condit ions are good, or where long, wel l-maintained haul roads are

established. Achieve this condition as soon as possible. Production increases

w h e n t h e s cr a p e r is w o r k i n g a t i t s m a x i m u m s p ee d . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t

determine a high-speed ha uling zone are a s follow s:

Good haul ing cond i t ions ex is t on both grade and haul-roa d sur f aces.

Ha ul d is tances a re long enough to permi t acce lera t ion to maximum

travel speeds.

P ush t ractors (a l so re fer red to as pushers) a re ava i l ab le to ass is t in

loading.

CAUTION

Operate equipment at safe speeds to prevent personal

injury or premature failure of the machines major

components. Accomplish hauling operations safely as well

as efficiently.


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Dozers 2-1

Chapter 2

Dozers

Dozers (tra cklay ing craw lers or w heel tr actors equipped wit h a blade) a re

p er h a p s t h e m o s t b a s i c a n d v e r s a t i le i t e m s of e q u i pm e n t i n t h e

constr uct ion industry . Dozers a re des igned to provide high dra w bar pul l

an d t r a ct ion e f for t . They a re t he s t a nda rd equ ipment for l a nd c lea r ing ,

dozing, an d a ssisting in scraper loa ding. They can be equipped w ith rea r-

mounted w inches or r ippers . Cra w ler t ra c tors exer t low ground-bear ing

pressure, which adds to their versatility. For long moves between projects

or w ithin a project , t ra nsport dozers on heavy tra i lers . Moving them under

their own power , even a t s low speeds , increa ses t ra ck w ear an d shor tensth e ma chines opera tiona l life.

DESCRIPTION2-1 . A craw ler dozer cons is t s o f a power pla nt (ty pica l ly a d iese l eng ine)

mounted on an undercarr iage , wh ich rides on tra cks. The tr acks extend the

full length of the dozer. There a re tw o clas sificat ions of milita ry dozers, ba sed

on weight and pounds of drawbar pull. The light class (about 16,000 pounds

ope r a t i ng w e i gh t ) inc l ud es t he d e p loy ab l e un i v e r s a l c om b a t e a r thm ov e r

(DEUCE) (Fi gur e 2-1). The medium class includes dozers ha ving a n operat ing

weight of 15,000 to 45,000 pounds (Fi gur e 2-2, page 2-2).

Figure 2-1. DEUCE, Light-Class Dozer


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FM 5-434

2-2 Dozers

Figure 2-2. Medium-Class Dozer

BLADES2-2. A dozer bla de consists of a moldboa rd w ith replacea ble cutt ing edges an d

s ide b i ts . E i ther t he push arm s an d t i l t cy l inders or a C- fra me are used to

c onne ct the b l ad e to th e t r a c tor . B l ad e s v a r y i n s i z e a nd d e s i gn b a s e d on

specific work applications. The h ar dened-steel cutting edges a nd side bits a re

bolted on beca use they receive most of th e abr asion a nd w ear out ra pidly. This

a llows for eas y replacement . Machine designs allow either edge of the bla de to

be ra ised or lowered in t he vert ica l plan e of th e blade ( t i l t). The top of the

blade ca n be pi tched forwa rd or backwa rd va rying the a ngle of at ta ck of the

cut t ing edge (pi tch). B lades mounted on a C-f rame can be turn ed f rom t he

direction of tr a vel (a ngl ing). These featur es a re not a pplicable to a l l b lades,

but a ny t wo of th ese featu res may be incorporat ed in a single mount.

STRAIGHT BLADE

2-3. Use straight blades for pushing material and cutting ditches. This blade

is mounted in a f ixed posi t ion, perpendicular t o the l ine of tr avel . I t can be

t i l ted and p i tched ei ther forwa rd or backward w i th in a 10 a r c . Ti l t ing the

blade a l low s concent ra t ion of dozer driving power on a l imited length of th eblade. P i tching the blade provides increased penetrat ion for cutt ing or less

penetration for back dragging.

ANGLE BLADE

2-4. Angle b lades , which a re 1 to 2 feet w ider tha n s t ra ight b la des , are used

most effectively to side ca st m a teria l when ba ckfill ing or wh en ma king sidehill

cu ts . Use a n a ngle b lade for rough gra d ing , spread ing p i les , or w indrowing


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FM 5-434

Dozers 2-3

m a t e r ia l . I t c a n b e a n g l ed u p t o a m a x i m u m o f 25 l e f t o r r i g h t o f

perpendicular to the dozer or used as a str a ight bla de. When a ngled, th e bla de

ca n be tilted but it cann ot be pitched.

SPECIAL-PURPOSE BLADE

2-5. There a re s pecia l bla des (Fi gur e 2-3),such a s th e Rome K/G , designed forclear ing br ush a nd t rees but not for ea r th moving . The Rome K/G b lade i s

permanent ly f ixed a t an ang le . On one end o f the b lade i s a s t inger . This

s t inger cons is ts o f a ve r t ica l spl it t e r a nd s t i f fener a nd a t r i a ngular -sha ped

hor i z on t a l pa r t c a l l ed th e w e b . O ne s id e of the t r i a ng u l a r w e b a b u t s th e

bott om of the vertical splitt er, and t he other side abu ts t he cutting edge of the

blade. The a butt ing sides of th e web a re each a bout 2 feet in length , depending

on how fa r t he stinger protru des from the blade. This blade is designed to cut

d ow n b r us h a nd t r e es a t , or a f ew i nche s ab ov e, g r ound l e v el r a t he r tha n

uprooting t hem. When cutt ing a large-diameter t ree, f i rst use th e st inger to

spl it t he t ree to weaken i t ; then , cut the t ree of f and push i t over wi t h t he

blade. Keep both the st inger an d th e cut ting edge sha rp. The operat or must be

well-tr a ined to be efficient in t his operat ion. There a re other special-purpose

blades not discussed in th is man ua l which can be mounted on dozers.

Figure 2-3. Special-Purpose Clearing Blade

CLEARING AND GRUBBING OPERATIONS

2-6 . C lear ing vegeta t ion a nd t rees i s usua l ly necessary be fore moving a nd

sha ping the ground. Clea ring includes removing surface boulders an d other

ma teria ls embedded in the ground an d th en disposing of th e cleared ma teria l.

Ensure that environmental-protection considerat ions are addressed before

conduct ing c lear ing opera t ions . Spec i f ica t ions may a l low shear ing o f the

vegeta tion a nd t rees at g round level, or it m ay be necessary to grub (removing

Web

Cutting

edge

Guide bar

Stinger

Splitting point


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2-4 Dozers

stum ps a nd roots f r om below t he ground). Project specif ica t ions w il l d icta te

the proper clea ring t echniqu es. Pla n clear ing opera tions to a l low disposal of

debr is in one ha nd l ing . I t i s bes t t o t ra ve l in one d i rec t ion when c lear ing .

Cha ng ing d i rect ion tends t o sk in a nd scrape th e t rees ins tead o f uproot ing

the m or a l l ow i ng a c l e an c u t . C l e a r i ng t e c hn i q ue s v a r y w i th the t y pe o f

v e g e t a t i o n b e i n g c le a r e d , t h e g r o u n d s s o il t y p e , a n d t h e s o il s m o i s t u r econdition. Ta ble 2-1 shows avera ge clear ing ra tes for norma l a rea -c lear ing

jobs. Increase t he T abl e 2-1va lues by 60 percent if t he project requires s trip-

type c lea ring (common in t ac t ical la nd c lea ring). Engin eers perform ta ct ical

l a n d c l ea r i n g a s a c om b a t s u p po r t f u n c t i on i n t e n d e d t o e n h a n c e a n d

complement m obilit y, f irepower, surveillance, and t a rget a cquisition.

BRUSH AND SMALL TREES

2-7. Moving th e dozer, w ith th e blade slightly below ground level, will usua llyremove small trees and brush. The blade cuts, breaks off , or uproots most of

the tr ee and bends the rest for removal on the return tr ip. A medium tra ctor

wit h a dozer bla de ca n clea r a nd pile about 0.25 acres of brush or sma ll trees

per hour.

MEDIUM TREES

2-8. To remove a medium -size t ree (7 to 12 inches in d ia met er), ra ise th e blad e

as h igh as possible to gain a dded leverage an d then push th e tree over slow ly.

As th e tree sta rt s to fa ll , ba ck the dozer qu ickly to a void th e rising roots. Then

lower t he blade an d drive the dozer forw ar d, l ifting out t he roots. The avera ge

time for a medium tr a ctor with a dozer blade to clear a nd pile medium tr ees is

2 to 9 minutes per t ree.

LARGE TREES

2-9. Removing la rge t rees (12 to 30 inches in d iam eter) is much slower a nd

m o r e d if f ic u lt t h a n c le a r i n g b r u s h a n d s m a l l er t r e e s . F i r s t , g e n t l y a n d

cautiously probe the t ree for dea d l imbs tha t could fa l l . Determine t he trees

natural direction of lean, if any; this is the best direction for pushing the tree

over . Then , pos i t ion the b la de h igh a nd center i t on t he t r ee for m aximum

Table 2-1. Quick Production Estimates for Normal Area Clearing

Equipment

Equipment (Hours Per Acre)

Light

(12 Inches or Less*)

Medium

(12 to 18 Inches*)

Heavy

(18 Inches*)

Bulldozer:Medium tractorHeavy tractor

2.51.5

5.03.0

10.08.0

Shear blade:Medium tractorHeavy tractor

0.40.3

0.80.5

1.30.8

*Maximum tree size

NOTE: These clearing rates are average for tree counts of 50 trees per acre. Adverse

conditions (slopes, rocks, soft ground) can reduce these rates significantly.


18/205

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Dozers 2-5

leverage. I f possible, push th e tree over the sa me as a medium tree. However,

i f the t r ee has a ma ss ive , deeply embedded root sys tem, use t he fol low ing

method (Fi gur e 2-4):

Figure 2-4. Four Steps for Removing a Large Tree With a Massive,

Deeply Embedded Root System

Step 1.St a rt on the side opposite the proposed direction of fa ll, and ma ke a cut

deep enough to sever some of th e lar ge roots. Ma ke the cut like a V-ditch, t ilted

downw ard la teral ly t owa rd the roots .

Step 2.Cut side two.

Step 3.Cut side three.

Step 4.Build an earth ramp on the same side as the original cut to obtain

greater pushing leverage. Then push the tree over and, as the tree starts to fall,

reverse the dozer q uickly t o avoid th e rising root m a ss. After felling the t ree, fill

the stump hole so tha t it will not collect wa ter.

1. Cut roots on side one. 2. Cut side two.

3. Cut side three.4. Build ramp on side one.

Push tree over.Average clearing time:

5 to 20 minutes per tree


19/205

FM 5-434

2-6 Dozers

The avera ge time for a medium t ra ctor w ith a dozer bla de to clear an d pile large

trees is 5 to 20 minutes per tree. The time required to clear and pile massive

trees requiring this four-step procedure will often be more than 20 minutes

each.

NOTE: The roots on the fourth side may also need to be cut.

ROOTS

2-10. Mount a rake on the dozer in place of the blade to remove roots and

sma l l s tumps . As th e dozer moves forwa rd , i t forces th e teeth o f th e rake

below th e grounds surfa ce. The teeth wil l ca tch t he belowg round roots an d

the sur f ace b rush le f t f rom the fel l ing opera t ion , w hi le the so il rema ins or

passes through.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

2-11. Never operate clearing tractors too close together. Do not follow a tree

too closely when pushin g it , beca use when it begins t o fa ll , its st ump a nd roots

ma y catch under the f ront of the dozer . Clea n out accumula ted debris in the

dozers belly pan often t o prevent f ires in t he engine compa rtm ent.

PRODUCTION ESTIMATES

2-12. The tw o methods for est ima ting production for c lea ring a nd gr ubbing

projects a re the q uick meth od and t he tr ee-count meth od.

Quick Method

2-13. T abl e 2-1, page 2-4, shows quick est imat es for norma l area clear ing. Use

the quick method only w hen a de ta i led reconna issance an d a t ree count a re

not possible.

Step 1.Det ermine th e size of the a rea t o clear (in a cres).

Step 2.Determine th e size and n umber of dozers ava ilable.

Step 3.Determine th e ma ximum size of the t rees to clear.

Step 4. Determine the time required (hours per acre) for clearing, based on

dozer size an d t ree size (see Tabl e 2-1).

Step 5.Determine the efficiency factor for the work. Operators require breaks,

a nd t here a re a lwa ys seconda ry delays for m inor equipment repairs. Therefore,

actual production time per hour is something less than 60 minutes. In the case

of a w ell-ma na ged job, expect 50 minutes of production t ime per hour.

Acres to be clearedwidth (feet) length (feet)

43,560 square feet per acre-----------------------------------------------------------------------------=

Efficiency factoractual working minutes per hour

60-minute working hour--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------=


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Dozers 2-7

Step 6.D etermine the opera tor factor using Tabl e 2-2.

Step 7.Determin e the t otal t ime (in hours) required to complete the mission.

whereD = time required, in hours per acre

A = total area, in acres

E = efficiency factor

O = operator factor

N = number of dozers available

Table 2-2. Operator Factors for Track Dozers

Operator Ability Daylight Night

ExcellentAveragePoor

1.000.750.60

0.750.560.45

NOTE: These factors assume good visibility and a

60-minute working hour efficiency.

Total time (hours)D A

E O N-------------------------=

EXAMPLE

Determine the time required to clear an area that is 500-feet wide by 0.5 mile long. Twomedium bulldozers are available for the task. The largest trees in the area are 14 inchesin diameter, and the ground is fairly level. The operators are of average ability and will doall work during daylight hours. Expected efficiency is 50 minutes per hour.

Step 1.

Step 2.Dozer size = medium

Number of dozers available = 2

Step 3.Maximum tree size = 14 inches

Step 4. Time required = 5 hours per acre(Table 2-1, page 2-4)

Step 5.

Step 6.Operator factor =0.75(Table 2-2)

Step 7.

Total area in acreswidth (feet) length (feet)

43,560 square feet per acre-----------------------------------------------------------------------------=

500 feet 0.5 mile 5,280 feet per mile( )

43,560-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------= 30.3 acres=

Efficiency factor50 minutes per hour

60-minute working hour-------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.83= =

Total time (hours)5 hours per acre 30.3 acres

0.83 0.75 2---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121.6 or 122 hours= =


21/205

FM 5-434

2-8 Dozers

Tree-Count Method

2-14. Use this method when a detai led reconnaissance and a tree count are

possible. The tree-count method allows for a better production estimate.

Step 1. Determin e the size of the a rea to clear (in a cres). Refer t o step 1 of the

quick method.Step 2.Determin e the size an d num ber of dozers a va ilable.

Step 3.Determine the average number of each size of tree per acre. This will

require a field reconna issan ce.

Step 4.Determine the basic production factors (hours per acre) based on thedozer size an d t he size of the t rees to clear (Tabl e 2-3).

Step 5.Determin e the time required to clea r one acre.

where

D = clearing time of one acre, in minutes

H = hardwood factor affecting total time

H = 1.3 if hardwoods are 75 to 100 percent

H = 1 if hardwoods are 25 to 75 percent

H = 0.7 if hardwoods are 0 to 25 percent

A = tree-density and presence-of-vines factor affecting total time

A = 2 if density is more than 600 trees per acre (dense)

A = 1 if density is 400 to 600 trees per acre (medium)

A = 0.7 if density is less than 400 trees per acre (light)

A = 2 if heavy vines are present

B = base time per acre determined from dozer size, in minutes

M = time required per tree in each diameter range, in minutes

N = number of trees per acre in each diameter range, from

reconnaissance

I = sum of diameter of all trees per acre greater than 6 feet indiameter at ground level (in foot increments), from reconnaissance

F = time required per foot of diameter for trees greater than 6 feet in

diameter, in minutes

NOTE: When it is necessary to grub roots and stumps, increase thetime per acre by 25 percent.

Table 2-3. Production Factors for Felling With a Clearing Blade

Tractor

Base Minutes

Per Acre

B

Tree Diameter Range

1-2 Feet

M1

2-3 Feet

M2

3-4 Feet

M3

4-6 Feet

M4

More Than 6 Feet

F

Medium 23.48 0.5 1.7 3.6 10.2 3.3

Heavy 18.22 0.2 1.3 2.2 6.0 1.8

NOTE: These times are based on working on reasonably level ground with good footing and anaverage mix of soft and hardwoods.

D H A B[ ] M1N

1[ ]M

2N

2[ ]M

3N

3[ ]M

4N

4[ ]I F[ ]+ + + + +( )=


22/205

FM 5-434

Dozers 2-9

Step 6.Determin e the t otal t ime (in hours) required to complete the mission.

where

D = time required to clear one acre (from step 5), in hours

A = total area

N = number of dozers

NOTE: The tree-count method has no correction factor for efficiency oroperator skill. The values in T ab l e 2-3are based on normal efficiencyand average operator skill.

SIDEHILL EXCAVATIONS2-15. One of a dozers more important uses is making sidehil l cuts , which

includes pioneering r oad cut s a long h illsides. An a ngle blade is preferred for

this operat ion because of its side-castin g a bility.

CREATING A SLOPE

2-16. I t is best t o star t t he cut at th e top of the hi l l , creat ing a bench several

dozer lengths long. Do th is by w orking up a nd down th e slope perpendicula r t o

th e long direction of the project (Fi gur e 2-5[A], pa ge 2-10). Design t he benches

to ensure tha t w at er runs off without da maging t he slope. I f possible, s ta rt t he

bench on t he uphill extr eme of th e cut (th e highest point of the cut) and then

widen a nd deepen t he cut u nt il the desired road profile is achieved. B e sure to

sta rt the bench far enough up the slope to allow r oom for both th e inner slope

and the roadw ay .

NOTE: When working on extremely steep slopes, a winch line may benecessary to stabilize the dozer(seepa r ag r aph 2-37) .

2-17. B eca use the perpendicula r pa sses ar e short, th e dozer usua lly is not a ble

to develop a ful l b la de loa d. Therefore , a f ter constru cting th e ini t ia l bench,

tur n t he dozer an d work in t he long direction of the project (F igu r e 2-5[B] ,

page 2-10).D e v e lop a f u l l b la d e l oa d a nd t he n tu r n the d oz er t o pus h t he

material over the side . After developing the bench, use e i ther a dozer or a

scraper t o complete t he cut . K eep th e inside (hi l ls ide) of the r oadw a y lower

th a n t he outside . This a l lows th e dozer to work ef fectively on t he edge and

decrea ses the erosion of the outer s lope. Ma ke sure to main ta in th e proper

slope on the inside of the cut. I t is very difficult t o cha nge t he cut slope a fter

constr uction. Maint ain th e proper bench slope by moving out from t he inside

s lope on ea ch success ive cut . D e te rmine th e s lope ra t io f rom t he d is ta nce

moved a w a y from th e slope for each successive cut a nd t he depth of each cut.

When cutt ing the roads cross slope, work from the toe of the bench to the

roads outside edge.

Total time (hours)D A

N--------------=


23/205

FM 5-434

2-10 Dozers

Figure 2-5. Sidehill Cut

FINISHING A SIDE SLOPE

2-18. There a re tw o meth ods for finish ing a side slopeworking perpen dicular

to the slope a nd w orking diagona lly up the slope.

Working Perpendicular to the Slope

2-19. The dozer sh own in F i gur e 2-6 i s f in i sh ing a s ide s lope by working

perpendicular to the s lope. S t ar t the dozer a t t he top of the embankment and ,

on each pa ss , ear th wil l fa l l to the lower s ide of the blade forming a windrow.

On succeeding passes, pick up this windrow and use it to f i l l holes and other

i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e t e r r a i n . B e c a r e f u l t o p r e v en t t h e b l a d e c or n e r f r o mdigging in too deep; th is would st eepen the slope beyond job specificat ions.

Figure 2-6. Finishing a Side Slope Working Perpendicular to the Slope


24/205

FM 5-434

Dozers 2-11

Working Diagonally Up the Slope

2-20. The dozer show n in Fi gur e 2-7is f inishing the side slope by st ar t ing a t

the bottom a nd w orking diagonal ly up the slope. The windrow tha t forms is

c on t i n ua l l y pus he d to one s i d e, w h i ch t e nd s t o f i ll l ow s po t s , ho l es , a nd

irregularit ies. This is one of th e few inst a nces w here a dozer w orks effectively

pushing uphill .

Figure 2-7. Finishing a Side Slope Working Diagonally up the Slope

OPERATION TECHNIQUES2-21. Dozers work best w hen th e ground is f irm a nd w ithout potholes, sha rp

ridges, or r ocks. Uneven surfa ces ma ke it diff icult to keep the blade in cont a ctwith th e ground. This tends to bury vegeta t ion in hollow s ra th er tha n remove

i t . To s av e t i m e a nd i nc r e as e ou tpu t , us e t he f o ll ow i ng t e c hn i q ue s w h e n

conditions permit.

DOZING

2-22. When str a ight dozing , i f the blade digs in a nd t he rear of th e machine

rises, ra ise the bla de to continue an even cut . I f moving a h eavy load causes

th e tra vel speed to drop, shift to a low er gear a nd/or ra ise the blade slightly .

When finishing or leveling, a full blad e ha ndles easier tha n a part ially-loa ded

blade.

Side-by-Side Dozing

2-23. S ide-by-side dozing w il l increa se product ion 15 to 25 percent w hen

moving ma teria l 50 to 300 feet (Fi gur e 2-8, page 2-12).When the distance is

less than 50 feet, the extra time needed to maneuver and position the dozers

will offset the increased production.


25/205

FM 5-434

2-12 Dozers

Figure 2-8. Side-by-Side Dozing

Slot Dozing

2-24. Slot dozing uses spillage from th e first few passes t o build a wind row on

each side of a dozers pa th (Figu r e 2-9).This forms a trench, preventing blade-

side spillage on su bsequent pa sses. To increa se production, a lign cuts pa ra llel,

leaving a na rrow uncut section betw een slots. Then, remove the uncut section

by norma l dozing . When gr ad e a nd soi l condit ions a re favora ble, s lot dozing

can increase output by as much a s 20 percent.

Figure 2-9. Slot Dozing


26/205

FM 5-434

Dozers 2-13

Downhill Dozing

2-25. P i le severa l loads a t the br ink o f the h i l l , and t hen push t hem to t he

bott om in one pa ss. When dozing down hill , tra vel to the bottom of the hill with

e a c h l o a d . U s e d o w n h i l l d o z i n g w h e n e v er p o s s i b le s i n c e it i n c r e a s e s

production.

Hard-Materials Dozing

2 -2 6. U s e the d oz er b l ad e t o loos e n ha r d m a te r i a l w h e n r i pper s a r e no t

av a ilable. Tilt t he blad e to force one corn er into th e ma teria l. Tilting is done

thr ough blade cont rol, by driving one tra ck onto a ridge of ma terial bla ded up

for this pur pose or by placing a rock or log under th e tra ck. To maximize th e

driving force of the blade, hook only the tilted end under t he ma teria l. Brea k a

th in l a yer by turn ing on i t w i th a dozer . Turning causes the t r ack g rousers

(cleat s) to break th rough th e top la yer. With a th in lay er of frozen ma teria l, i t

is best t o break th rough at one point. B y lif ting and pushing, th e blade breaks

thr ough the top frozen lay er as shown in Fi gur e 2-10.

Figure 2-10. Dozing Hard Materials or Frozen Ground Layers

Rock Dozing

2-27. Use a rake to remove small rocks. The rake lets the soil remain, or pass

th r oug h , w h i l e d i g g i ng the r oc ks f r om the e a r th . Whe n r e m ov i ng l a r g e ,

pa r t i a l l y b ur i ed b ou l de r s , t i lt t he d oz er b l a d e and d i g the e a r t h ou t f r om

a round th ree sides of the boulder. Lower t he blade enough to get under t he

f our th s i d e. L i f t t h e b l ad e a s th e d oz e r m ove s f or w a r d t o c re a t e a l if t i ng ,ro l l ing ac t ion o f the boulder . I f th e dozer cann ot push t he boulder , l i f t i t

upwa rd w i th t he b lade a nd h av e someone place a log or some other object

und e r t he b ou ld e r s o the d oz e r c an g e t a no the r h o l d. The r o l li ng a c t i on

removes the boulder a s th e dozer moves forwa rd. Dozer work in r ocky a reas

increas es tra ck wear . I f possible, inst a ll rock shoes or rock pa ds t o cut down on

this wear .

Frozentoplayer


27/205

FM 5-434

2-14 Dozers

Wet-Materials Dozing

2-28. Wet ma teria l is diff icult to move with a dozer. Also, the w et ground m a y

be too soft to support t he w eight of the dozer. I f so, ma ke ea ch successive pass

the full depth of the w et ma terial. This will place the dozer on a firmer footing.

I f avai lable , use wider tracked shoes for better f lotat ion. When working in

mud , push the mud ba ck f ar enough t ha t i t w i l l not f low back in to the cut .

Make provisions for recovery operations in case the dozer becomes stuck. Try

to use machines equipped with a w inch.

DITCHING

2-29. Sha l low di tches a re best a ccomplished using a gra der, but dozers can

accompl ish r ough d i tchin g . Ti l t th e dozer b la de to cut sha l low V-d i tches

(F i gur e 2-11) .F or l a r g e r d i t c hes , pus h the m a te r i a l pe r pend i c ul a r t o the

cent er l ine of the di tch. After reaching t he desired depth, push t he ma teria l

th e le ng th o f the d i t c h to s m oo th th e s i de s an d b ot t om . Ma ny t i m e s it i s

necessa ry t o correct irr egularit ies in a ditch. Att empt t o remove humps or fill

holes in a single pa ss. Use m ultiple pa sses to correct t he gra de.

Figure 2-11. Tilt Dozer Ditching

CONSTRUCTING A STOCKPILE

2-30. A dozer is a good ma chine for creat ing stockpiles of ma teria l th a t ca n

then be eas i ly loa ded in t o haul uni ts by e i ther a loa der or a hydra ul ic hoe

exca vat or. U se the following st eps t o construct a stockpile:

Step 1.P ush t he mat erial from the beginning of the exca va tion to the stockpile

area on the first pass. This distance should be no more than 75 feet from the

start point. Do not excavate deeper than 6 to 8 inches, while maintaining a

smooth cut .

WARNING

Before putting the machine in reverse, and while

backing, the operator must be satisfied that no one

will be endangered.


28/205

FM 5-434

Dozers 2-15

Step 2.B egin to ra ise th e blade one dozer length fr om the stockpile, lettin g the

mat erial drift under t he blade forming a ra mp upon reaching t he stockpile area.

Step 3.P ush t he mat erial on successive cuts in the sa me man ner, working th e

dozer from t he sta rt point a ll the wa y a round the w ork a rea w hile stockpiling.

Overlap cuts a bout one-th ird of the bla des widt h t o pick up win drows.

NOTE: Do not stop the forward motion or cause the tracks to spin

while pushing material.

Step 4.Make successive cuts the same as in step 2, constructing the stockpile

higher on each pass unt il i t rea ches the desired height.

SPREADING A STOCKPILE

2-31. La rge piles should be worked from t he side, cutt ing ma teria l aw ay from

the st ockpile, using one-th ird of the bla de. Use th e followin g steps t o sprea d a

stockpile:

Step 1.Lower th e bla de to the desired height wh ile moving forwa rd.

Step 2. Adjust the blade height and move the dozer into the side of the pile

ma king th e cut w ith only one-th ird of th e bla de.

NOTE: When using the left side of the blade, continue working to the

left. When using the right side of the blade, continue working to theright.

Step 3.Cut into the stockpile. The blade should be as full as possible withoutsta lling th e dozer or spinning the tra cks. Raise an d lower th e bla de to mainta in

a smooth pass.

Step 4.S pread th e blade load after cutting th e pile by continuing to move for-

wa rd an d slowly ra ising the blade until all ma terial is evenly feat hered.Step 5.Feat her the blade load a nd reverse the dozer. Ra ise the bla de about 12

inches off the groun d, back th e dozer to t he stockpile, an d reposition for an other

cut.

Repeat t he above steps until th e stockpile ha s been leveled an d spread over the

designated area. Do notba ck blade t o level the s tockpile.

CAUTIONKeep the dozer under control at all times. Do not put the

transmission into neutral to allow the machine to coast.Select the gear range necessary before starting down the

grade. Do not change gears while going downhill.

WARNING

When spreading materials that are higher than the

midpoint of the rollover protective structure (ROPS),

adjust the height of the cut to eliminate the danger from

collapsing material.


29/205

FM 5-434

2-16 Dozers

BACKFILLING

2-32. B a ckfilling can be effectively a ccomplished by dr ifting ma terial sideway s

wi th an a ng le blade . This a l lows forwa rd mot ion para l le l to the excava t ion .

With a stra ight blade , approach the exca vat ion a t a s l ight a ngle a nd then, at

the e nd of the pas s , tu r n i n t ow a r d th e ex ca v a t i on . N o pa r t o f the t r a ck s

s hou l d ha ng ov e r the e d g e . A d jus t t he l e ng th o f the pus h b a s e d on s o i l

cond i t ions . For example , when work ing in so ft ma te r ia l or on an un s ta b le

slope, let t he second bladeful push t he first bla deful over t he edge. B e careful

to keep oversize materials out of the backfill.

RIPPING

2-33. Fi gure 2-12shows va rious ripping opera tions. Use first gea r for ripping

opera tions. When performing one-sha nk ripping, alw a ys use th e center sha nk.

U se addit iona l sha nks, w here practical, to increase production. When ripping

for scraper loading , r ip in the same direction that the scrapers are loading ,

w h e n e ve r p o s s ib l e. I t i s u s u a l l y d e s i r a b l e t o r i p a s d e e pl y a s p o s s i bl e.

How ever, it is sometimes bett er to rip th e mat erial in its na tur al la yers even if

th i s i s le s s tha n f u l l -s ha nk d e p th . U s e the r i pped m a te r i a l on t op o f theunripped forma tion to cushion th e machine an d provide tra ct ion. When th e

final ma teria l size must b e relat ively sma ll, spa ce passes close togeth er. Cross

rip only w hen necessa ry t o obta in the requ ired brea kage . Use t he fol lowing

steps to rip material:

Step 1.Position the dozer on the uphill side if operating on a slope, about half

th e length of the dozer from the sta rt of the a rea t o be ripped.

Step 2.P lace the tra nsmission shift lever in forwa rd, f irst gear.

Step 3.Lower the rippers to the ripping depth as the dozer begins to cross the

a rea t o be ripped.

Step 4.Ra ise the rippers out of the ground an d th en stop at the end of the pass.

Step 5.P lace the tra nsmission in reverse an d ba ck the dozer t o the sta rt point.

Step 6.P osition t he dozer t o overlap t he previous r ipping pa ss.

Repeat steps 1 through 6 unt il the a rea is completely ripped.

Packed Soil, Hardpan, Shale, and Cemented Gravel

2-34. Three-sha nk ripping works w ell in t hese mat erials. U se as m a ny sha nks

a s possible to break ma terial t o the desired size.

WARNING

Maintain a straight line while ripping. Turning thedozer with the rippers in the ground will cause

damage to the dozer.


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Dozers 2-17

Figure 2-12. Ripping Operations

Rock with Fractures, Faults, and Planes of Weakness

2-35. U se tw o sha nks for r ipping wh ere rocks break out in sma ll pieces an d

the m a c h i ne c an ha nd l e the job e as i l y . U s e on l y the ce n te r s ha nk i f t he

ma chine begins t o stall or the tra cks spin.

Asphalt.Ra ise the r ipper sha nk to l if t out a nd break th e mat eria l .

Concrete. Use one-shank ripping to sever reinforcing rods or wiremesh effectively.

Solid Rock, Granite, and Hard-to-Rip Material

2-36. Use one shan k in ha rd-to-rip mat eria l or ma teria l tha t t ends to breakout in la rge sla bs or pieces.

WINCHING

2-37. Winching i s ho is t ing or ha ul ing w i th a w inch , us ing a cab le . When

winching, ma ke sure personnel are c lea r of the ca ble. Ca bles ca n break a nd

ca use severe in jury . Exerc ise caut ion w i th suspended loa ds . I f the engine

revolut ions (speed) ar e too low, t he w eight of th e loa d ma y exceed the engin e

Three-shank ripping

Single-shank ripping Cross ripping

Two-shank ripping


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2-18 Dozers

capa c ity caus ing t he load to d rop, even though t he winch i s in t he ree l-in

position.

DOZER PRODUCTION ESTIMATES2-38. D ozer production curves give ma ximum-production va lues (in LC Y per

hour) for stra ight a nd un iversa l blades based on the follow ing conditions:

A 60-minute working hour (100 percent eff iciency).

P ower-sh i ft ma chines w i th 0 .05-minute fixed t imes a re be ing used .

The dozer cu ts 50 feet , then d r if t s the blade load to dump over a h igh

wal l .

The soi l dens i ty is 2,300 pounds per LCY.

The coeff icient of tra ct ion equals 0.5 or bet ter for cra wler machines

a nd 0.4 or better for wh eel ma chines.

H y d r a u li c-con t r ol le d bl a d es a r e b ei n g us ed .

2-39. U se t he followin g st eps to est ima te dozer pr oduction:

Step 1. Determine the maximum production. Determine the estimated maxi-

mum production from either Fi gur e 2-13 or 2-14, based on the type of dozerbeing used. Find the dozing distance on the bottom horizontal scale in the

proper figure. Read u p vertically unt il int ersecting t he production curve for th e

dozer being considered then read the vertical scale on the left to determine the

maximum production in LCY per hour.

U se Fi gur e 2-13 to determine the estimated maximum production for

D3 t h r o u g h D6 t r a c t or s w i t h s t r a i g h t b la d e s. Th e DE U C E h a s t h e

same production capability as the D5.

U se Fi gur e 2-14 to determine the estimated maximum production for

D7 or D8 tractors wi th universal or s traight b lades .

CAUTIONAlways keep the winch cable in a straight line behind the

machine. For safety and maximum service life of the

winch component, decelerate the engine before moving

the winch control lever. After shifting, control the cable

speed by varying the engine speed. Winch loads at low

engine speed with the machine stationary. When moving

away from a load, operate the machine in low gear to

prevent overspeeding of winch components. Do not

operate the winch for extended durations.


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Dozers 2-19

Figure 2-13. Estimated Maximum Production for D3 Through D6 Tractors

With Straight Blades

Figure 2-14. Estimated Maximum Production for D7 or D8 Tractors

With Universal or Straight Blades

S = straight bladeAverage dozing distance (feet)

S = straight bladeAverage dozing distance (feet)

1,600

1,400

1,200

1,000


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2-20 Dozers

Step 2.Det ermine t he gra de correction fa ctor(-) favora ble or (+ ) unfa vorable.

Find the percent grade on the top horizontal scale of Fi gur e 2-15. Read down

vertica lly a nd int ersect the gra de correction curve, th en rea d t o the right hori-

zonta lly an d locat e the gra de correction factor on the vertical sca le.

Figure 2-15. Dozer-Production Grade Correction Factors

Step 3. Determine the material-weight correction factor. I f the actual unit

weight of the m a terial t o be pushed is not ava ila ble from soil investigations, use

the a verage values found in Tabl e 1-2, page 1-4. Divide 2,300 pounds per LCY

by the materials LCY weight to find the correction factor. Soil density of 2,300

pounds per LCY is a constant that was assumed in determining the maximum

production.

where

2,300 = standard material unit weight per LCY

Step 4.Determine the material-type correction factor. Dozer blades are

designed to cut material and give it a rolling effect in front of the blade. This

results in a production factor of 1. Table 2-4 gives the correction factors to

a ccount for how different m a teria ls beha ve in front of the blade.

Note:

(-) Favorable

(+) Unfavorable

Material-weight correction factor2,300 pounds per LCY (standard material unit weight)

actual material LCY weight--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------=


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2-22 Dozers

Step 10.Determine the tota l time required in h ours.

where

Q = quantity of material to be moved

P = hourly production rate per dozer

N = number of dozers

EXAMPLE

Determine the average hourly production (in CCY) of a straight-blade D7 (with tiltcylinder) moving hard-packed clay an average distance of 200 feet, down a 10 per-cent grade, using slot dozing. Estimated material weight is 2,500 pounds per LCY.

The operator is of average ability and will work during daylight hours. Expected effi-ciency is 50 minutes per hour.

Step 1.Uncorrected maximum production = 300 LCY per hour(Figure 2-14, page2-19)

Step 2.Grade correction factor = 1.15(Figure 2-15, page 2-20)

Step 3. Material-weight correction factor

Step 4.Material-type correction factor (a hard-to-cut material) = 0.8(Table 2-4,page 2-21)

Step 5. Operator correction factor = 0.75(Table 2-2, page 2-7)Step 6.Operating-technique correction factor = 1.2(Table 2-5, page 2-21)

Step 7.

Step 8. Dozer production

Step 9.Material conversion factor = 0.63

2,300 pounds per LCY (standard material unit weight)

2,500 pounds per LCY (actual material unit weight)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0.92=

=

Efficiency factor50 working minutes per hour

60-minute working hour---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.83= =

300 LCY per hour 1.15 0.92 0.8 0.75 1.2 0.83190 LCY per hour per dozer=

=

Dozer production in CCY 0.63 190 LCY per hour 120 CCY per hour= =

Total time (hours)Q

P N--------------=

EXAMPLE

Determine the total time required to move 3,000 CCY of hard-packed clay, using one D7dozer with a production rate of 120 CCY per hour.

3,000 CCY120 CCY per hour 1 dozen------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25 hours=


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Dozers 2-23

Step 11.Determ ine the t ota l number of dozers requ ired to complete the mission

with in a given time.

where

Q = quantity of material to be movedP = hourly production rate per dozer

T = maximum allowable duration, in hours

RIPPING PRODUCTION ESTIMATES2-40. The best method to est imate r ipping production is by working a test

s e ct i o n a n d r e c or d i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d a n d t h e p r o d u ct i o n a c h i ev e d .

How ever, the opport unity to conduct such invest igat ions is often nonexistent

and, therefore , est imates are usual ly based on historical production charts .

Ripping a pplicat ions w il l increase the ma chines ma intena nce requirements

by 30 to 40 percent .

QUICK METHOD

2-41. A quick meth od to determine a n a pproxima te production ra te is t o time

s e v er a l p a s s e s o f a r i p p e r ov e r a m e a s u r e d d i s t a n c e . Th e t i m e d d u r a t i on

s h o u ld i n c lu d e t h e t u r n a r o u n d t i m e a t t h e e n d of t h e p a s s . D e t e r m i n e a n

average cycle t ime from the t imed cycles . Determine the quanti ty (volume)from the measured length mult ipl ied by the width of the r ipped area and the

depth of penetra tion. I f measur ements a re in feet, divide the nu mber of feet by

27 to convert cubic feet to cubic ya rds.

where

27 = factor used to convert cubic feet to cubic yards

2-42. Experience has shown that the production rate calculated by this quick

method is a bout 20 percent higher th an an a ccura te ly cross-sectioned st udy.

Therefore, the formula for estimating ripping production is

where

V = measured volume in BCY

T = average time in hours

1.2 = method correction factor

Total number of dozersQ

P T-------------=

EXAMPLE

Determine how many D7 dozers (with a production rate of 120 CCY per hour) would beneeded to move 3,000 CCY of clay in seven hours.

3,000 CCY

120 CCY per hour 7 hours------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3.6 D7 dozers (round up to 4 dozers)=

Volume BCYlength (feet) width (feet) penetration depth (feet)

27--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------=

Ripping production (BCY per hour) VT 1.2------------------=


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2-24 Dozers

SEISMIC-VELOCITY METHOD

2-43. Most ripping-production cha rt s a re ba sed on the relat ionship between t he

ripa bility a nd th e seismic-wa ve velocity response of a ma teria l. The Fi gur e 2-16

ripping performa nce cha rt , w hich is for a 300-horsepow er dozer, a l low s t he

estima tor to ma ke a determina tion of th e machine s performan ce capabil i ty

based on seismic velocity and general rock classifications. After establishing a

seismic velocity, estimate production from the production chart in Fi gur e 2-17.

This chart provides a band of production rates representing ideal-to-adverse

rock conditions based on t he following a ssumpt ions:

The eff iciency factor is 100 percent (60-minute working hour).

The power-sh if t machines used have sing le-shank r ippers .

Th e m a ch in e r ip s f u ll -t i me , n o doz in g .

The upper limit o f the band re flects r ipping under idea l cond i t ions

only . I f condit ions such a s th ick la mina t ions, vert ical la mina t ions, or

o ther rock s t ruc tura l cond i t ions ex is t w hich would a dverse ly a f fec t

production, use t he lower limit.

2-44. Regardless of the seismic velocity, tooth penetration is the key to rippings u c ce s s . Th i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r h o m o g e n eo u s m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s

mudst one, clay stone, an d fine-gra ined caliches.

Figure 2-16. Ripping Performance for a 300-Horsepower Dozer

With a Single- or Multishank Ripper

Velocity in meters

per second 1,000

Velocity in feet

per second 1,000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

TopsoilClayGlacial tillIgneous

Granite

BasaltTrap rock

Sedimentary rocksShaleSandstoneSiltstoneClaystoneConglomerateBrecciaCalicheLimestone

Metamorphic rockSchistSlate

Minerals and oresCoalIron ore

Ripable Marginal Nonripable

1 2 3 40


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Dozers 2-25

Figure 2-17. Estimated Ripping Production for a 300-Horsepower

Dozer With a Single-Shank Ripper

where

P = maximum production for a 300-horsepower dozer (Figure 2-17)

E = efficiency factor

NOTE: Before referring to F i gu r e 2-17 fordetermining a probable pro-

duction rate, refer to F i gur e 2-16to verify the ripability with the equip-ment available.

3,250

3,000

2,7502,500

2,250

2,000

1,750

1,500

1,250

1,000

750

500

250

Production(BCYperhour)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8Seismic velocity (in feet per second 1,000)

Ideal

Adverse

Production (BCY per hour per dozer) P E=

EXAMPLE

Determine how many 300-horsepower dozers are needed to rip 9,000 BCY of limestonehaving a seismic velocity of 4,000 feet per second in 7 hours. The limestone is beddedin thin laminated layers. Efficiency will be a 45-minute working hour.

Maximum production for ideal conditions (thin layers) is 1,700 BCY per hour (Figure2-17).

Efficiency-adjusted production

1,700 BCY per hour45

60------

1,275 BCY per hour=

=

9,000 BCY

1,275 BCY per hour 7 hours----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1,300-horsepower dozer=


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2-26 Dozers

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS2-45. List ed below a re some specific sa fety pr eca ut ions for dozer opera tors :

N eve r ca r r y per son n el on t h e t r a ct or d r a w ba r .

Never turn a round on s teep s lopes ; back up or down ins tead .

K e ep t h e m a c hi n e i n low g e a r w h e n t ow i n g a h ea v y loa d d ow n h i ll .

Al w a y s low e r t h e b la d e s w h e n t he m a ch i ne is pa r k ed .

Ensure tha t on ly one person i s on the machine whi le it i s in opera t ion.

H o w e v e r , in s o m e t r a i n i n g s it u a t i on s i t i s n e ce s s a r y t o h a v e t w o

people on a dozer w hile it is in opera tion.


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Scrapers 3-1

Chapter 3

Scrapers

The des ign o f sc r apers ( t r a c to r scr a pers ) a l low s for load in g , ha u l ing ,

dumping, and sprea ding of loose ma terials . U se a scraper for m edium-ha ul

ear t hmoving operat ions a nd for moving r ipped ma ter ia ls an d shot rock.

The ha ul dista nce (zone of opera tion), th e load volume, a nd t he ty pe an d

g r a d e of s u r f a c e t r a v e le d on a r e t h e p r i m a r y f a c t o r s i n d e t e r m i n in g

whether to use a scraper on a particular job. The optimum haul distance

for sm a ll- a nd medium-size scrapers is 3,000 feet or less.

DESCRIPTION

3-46. F i gur e 3-1, page 3-2, shows a CAT 621B single-powered-axle wheelscraper. The CAT 621 is designed to opera te us ing a push t ra ctor for loa ding

assistance. The air-droppable CAT 613B wheel scraper has a chain-elevator

load ing mechanism tha t a l lows i t to load wi thout the ass i s tance o f a push

tra ctor. The basic operat ing part s of a scra per are th ese:

Bowl. The bowl is the loading and carrying component. I t has a

cutt ing edge, which extends a cross the f ront bottom edge. Lower the

bowl unti l th e cutt ing edge enters t he ground for load ing, ra ise it for

car ry ing , a nd lower i t t o the des i red l i ft th ickness for dumping and

spreading.

Apron. The apron is the front wall of the bowl. I t is independent oft h e b o w l a n d , w h e n r a i s ed , i t p r o v id e s a n o pe n i n g f or l o a d i n g a n d

spreading. Lower th e apron during ha uling to prevent spilla ge.

Ejector.The ejector is t he rea r w a ll of the bowl. Keep t he ejector inthe rear pos i t ion wh en load ing an d haul ing ma ter i a l s . Act iva t e the

ejector t o move forw ar d dur ing sprea ding t o provide positive discharge

of materia ls .

CAPACITY

3-47. Struckca paci ty means the bowl has a ful l load of ma teria l t ha t is level

with its sides. H eapedcapacity mea ns the ma teria l is heaped in the bowl a nd

slopes down on a 1:1 repose slope to the sides of the bowl. In practice, these

will be LCY of ma teria l becau se of how a scraper loads. Therefore, load volume

in terms of BC Y moved depends on both the bowl s ize and th e mat eria l type

being loaded. The ra ted volumet ric ca pacity of the Army 621B scra per is 14-

cubic-ya rds str uck a nd 20-cubic-ya rds hea ped. The ca pacity of the CAT 613B

scraper is 11-cubic-ya rds h eaped. E levat ing scra pers, l ike the Army 613, ar e

not given struck capacity ratings.


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3-2 Scrapers

Figure 3-18. CAT 621B Wheel Scraper

OPERATING RANGE

3-48. The optimum ha ul dist a nce for t he sma ll- a nd m edium-size scrapers is

300 to 3,000 feet. There a re la rger s cra pers t ha t a re effective up t o 5,000 feet.

SELECTION

3-49. A scra per is a compromise betw een a ma chine designed exclusively for

e i ther load ing or haul ing . For medium-dis tance movement o f mate r ia l , a

scra per is bett er tha n a dozer because of i ts tra vel-speed adva nta ge and i t is

better t han a truck because of i ts fast load t ime, typical ly less than a minute .

An o t h e r a d v a n t a g e of t h e s cr a p er i s t h a t i t c a n s p r ea d i t s ow n l oa d a n d

quickly complete th e dump cycle.

PRODUCTION CYCLE3-50. Th e production cycle for a scraper consis ts of s ix operat ionsload ing,

ha ul travel , dumping and spreading, turning at t he dump si te , return tra vel,

an d tur n ing a nd pos i t ion ing t o load . F i gure 3-2shows t he func t ions o f the

a pron, bowl, and ejector during loa ding, ha uling, and dum ping.

LOADING

3-51. The C AT 621 loa ds w ith push-tr a ctor a ssist a nce. This scra per can loa dto a l imited extent wi thout assis tance, but requires push loading to achieve

ma ximum production. P usher a ssis tan ce is necessary t o reduce loading t ime

a nd w heel spinning. R educing scra per wh eel spinning increa ses tire life. The

scraper should not depend on th e pusher to do all t he w ork. Conversely, do not

spin the scra per's wheels to pull aw ay from the pusher. U se pusher assista nce

for ei ther s tr aight , downhil l , or s tra ddle loading. Alwa ys load th e scra per in

t h e d i r e ct i o n of h a u l . D o n ot t u r n t h e s cr a p e r a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t i s

Radiator

Engine

compartment

Cab (ROPS)

Hitch Draft frame

Ejector Push block

(extends out

behind wheels)

Tractor Apron Bowl


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Scrapers 3-3

a c ce l er a t i ng f r om th e l oad i ng oper a t i on . The C A T 6 13 i s a s e l f -l oad i ng

m a c h i n e , a n d p u s h i n g d u r i n g l o a d i n g w i l l d a m a g e t h e s c r a p e r s l o a d i n g

elevator.

Figure 3-19. Functions of the Apron, Bowl, and Ejector

Downhill Loading

3-52. Down hil l loa ding ena bles a scraper t o obta in lar ger loads in less t ime.

Ea ch 1 percent of favora ble grade is equivalent to increasing t he loa ding force

by 20 pounds per ton of gross scraper w eight.

Straddle Loading

3 -5 3. S t r a d d l e l o a d i n g (F i gur e 3-3 , page 3-4) r e q u i r e s t h r e e cu t s w i t h a

scraper. The first tw o cuts should be para llel, leav ing a r idge betw een the tw o

cut s. The scraper str a ddles this ridge of ear th t o make th e fina l cut. The ridge

s h o u ld b e n o w i d e r t h a n t h e d i s t a n c e be t w e en a s c r a p e r 's w h e el s . Wi t hstra ddle loa ding, t ime is ga ined on every third t r ip because th e center s tr ip

loads w ith less resis tance tha n a full cut .

Direction of travel

Direction of travel

Direction of travel

Apron raised

Apron lowered

Apron raised

Ejector back in rear position during loading

Bowl lowered to desired cutting depth

Loading

Bowl raised to permit free travel

Ejector back

Carrying theload (hauling)

Ejector moves forward to empty bowl

Bowl lowered to desired spreading

Carrying theload (hauling)

Spreading the

load

Ejector back


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3-4 Scrapers

Figure 3-20. Straddle Loading With Pusher Assistance

Push-Loading

3-54. Back-Track. Use the back-track push-loading technique (F igu re 3-4)

wh ere i t i s imprac t ica l t o load in both d i rec t ions . H owever , th is me thod i s

inefficient due to the t ime spent in ba cking up a nd r epositioning for the next

load.

3-55. Chain. U se the chain push -loa ding technique (Fi gur e 3-4)wh ere the cutis fairly long, ma king it possible to pick up tw o or more scraper loads w ithout

back tra cking . The pusher push es one scra per , t hen m oves behind a nother

scraper th at is moving in the sam e direction in a n a djacent lane .

Figure 3-21. Push-Loading Techniques

Make cuts 1 and 3, leaving a center strip (2) one-half blade width.

Back-trackloading

Chainloading

Shuttleloading

Push-tractor (dozer)

Loading Scraper

Loaded

Scraper


Loading LoadedScraper


Loading

Loaded

Scraper

Loading

Loading


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Scrapers 3-5

3-56. Shuttle. Use t he shut t le push-loa ding technique (Fi gur e 3-4) for shortcuts w here i t is possible to load in both directions. The pusher pu shes one

scraper, then t urn s a nd pushes a second scra per in the opposite direction.

Cut-and-Load Sequence

3-57. The scra per load ing s equence is a s follow s:

Step 1.Use the service brake to reduce scraper travel speed when close to the

cut (loading la ne), and dow nshift t o first gea r for loading.

Step 2.Move the ejector t o the rea r.

Step 3. Open the apron partw ay.

Step 4.Lower th e bowl t o an efficient cut depth a fter th e scra per ent ers the cut.

Continue moving forwa rd unt il the dozer contacts t he scraper a nd begins push-

ing. If the scraper tires spin before the dozer makes contact, stop and allow the

dozer to assist. When the dozer makes contact, push down both the differential

lock and the t ra nsmission hold peda l a nd proceed in second gear. The cut should

be a s deep as possible, but it should allow th e scra per to move forw a rd a t a con-

sta nt s peed wit hout lugging th e engine. Decrea se the cut depth if th e scra per or

pusher lugs or if th e drive wheels slip. U se th e router bits on t he vertical side of

th e bowl t o gauge th e depth of cut. Once an efficient depth of cut is det ermined,

use tha t sa me depth on successive pa sses.

Step 5.Mar k the cut. When cutt ing

Regula te the apron opening to prevent mater i a l from pil ing up in f ront

of th e lip or falling out of th e bowl.

K e ep t h e m a c hi n e m ov in g i n a

Miscare Pamant Ingineri Sua

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