Civilizatie - Pregatire Pentru Bacalaureat Bac Limba Engleza.[Conspecte.md]

7/28/2019 Civilizatie - Pregatire Pentru Bacalaureat Bac Limba Engleza.[Conspecte.md]

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1. United KingdomThe official name of the country we usually call England and occasionally

Great Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.The U. K. is situated on the group of islands lying just off the mainland ofnorthwestern Europe. The British Isles include Great Britain proper,Ireland and a number of smaller islands. Great Britain consists of England,Scotland and Wales. The southern part of Ireland is the Republic of Eire.Great Britain is separated from the continent by the English Channel, thenarrower part of which is called the Strait of Dover. The British Isles aresurrounded by the shallow waters of the Irish Sea and the North Sea, theNorwegian Sea, the North Channel and the Atlantic Ocean.Britain is comparatively small, but there is hardly a country, in the worldwhere such a variety of scenery can be found. There are wild desolate

mountains in the northern Highlands of Scotland - the home of the deerand the eagle. The Pennine Range in northern England and the CambrianMountains in Wales are much lower. In the extreme south of England arethe famous chalk hills, some of which form the Dover Cliffs. The southernand south-eastern parts of the island lie in varied lowlands.

The rivers of the region are short and of no great importance aswaterways. The longest of them is the "Father of London", the Thames,which is a little over 200 miles. Britain's principal ports are London,Liverpool, Manchester, Hull, and Glasgow.

Thanks to climatic conditions, Britain in truth looks like one great well-

ordered park with its old trees, green meadows and hedges.


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2. London-capital of Great BritainThe capital of Great Britain is London. It's political, economic andcommercial center of the country. Its population is about 8 million.London is divided into several parts: the City, Westminster, the West Endand the East End.

The heart of London is the City, its financial and business center.Numerous banks, offices and firms are situated there, including the Bank ofEngland, the Stock Exchange and the Old Bailey. Few people live here, butover a million people come to the city to work.

There are some famous ancient buildings within the City. Perhaps the most

striking of them in St. Paul's Cathedral, the greatest of British churches.Another important monument of London is The Tower of London which wasused for many purposes: as a royal palace, an observatory, an arsenal, astate prison and it is now a museum. For many visitors the principalattraction is the Crown Jewels, the finest precious stones of the nation.Westminster is the historic, the governmental part of London. WestminsterAbbey is a national shrine where the kings and queens are crowned andfamous people are buried. Across the road from Westminster Abbey is theseat of the British Parliament. The Clock Tower, which contains the hour-bell called Big Ben, is known the world over. Buckingham Palace is the

official residence of the Queen.Trafalgar Square is the geographical center of London. On the north side ofTrafalgar Square is the National Gallery and the National Portrait Gallery.Not far away is the British Museum - the biggest museum in London.

The West End is the richest and the most beautiful part of London. Onlyreach people live there. But in the same time The East End is the poorestdistrict of London. There are a lot of factories, workshops and docks here.

The streets are narrow, the buildings are unimpressive. This is the place ofliving of the working class..51So after all we can say that the UK is one of the most powerful countries

with great culture and it would be very exiting to visit it.3. Climate and Nature of Great Britain


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The climate in Great Britain is generally mild and temperate due to theinfluence of the Gulf Stream. The south-western winds carry the warmth

and moisture into Britain. The climate in Britain is usually described ascool, temperate and humid.British people say: "Other countries have a climate, in England we haveweather."

The weather in Britain changes very quickly. One day may be fine and thenext day may be wet. The morning may be warm and the evening may becool. Therefore it is natural for the people to use the comparison "aschangeable as the weather" of a person who often changes his mood oropinion about something. The weather is the favorite topic of conversationin Britain.Rainfall is more or less even throughout the year. In the mountains there is

heavier rainfall then in the plains of the south and east. The driest period isfrom March to June and the wettest months are from October to January.

The average range of temperature (from winter to summer) is from 15 to23 degrees above zero. During a normal summer the temperaturesometimes rises above 30 degrees in the south. Winter temperaturesbelow 10 degrees are rare. It seldom snows heavily in winter, the frost israre. January and February are usually the coldest months, July and Augustthe warmest. Still the wind may bring winter cold in spring or summerdays. Sometimes it brings the whirlwinds or hurricanes. Droughts are rare.So, we may say that the British climate has three main features: it is mild,

humid and changeable. That means that it is never too hot or too cold.Winters are extremely mild. Snow may come but it melts quickly. In winterthe cold is humid cold, not the dry one.

This humid and mild climate is good for plants. The trees and flowers beginto blossom early in spring.4. Customs and traditions in UKAlmost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The English are reputedto be cold, reserved, rather haughty people. They are steady, easy-goingand fond of sports. There are certain kinds of behavior, manners andcustoms which are peculiar to England.

Britain is a nation of animal lovers. In Britain pets can send Christmascards to their friends, birthday cards.


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Every Englishmen spends his weekend different: those who live in citiesand towns like to go out of town. They may go to stay in the country to

admire the bright sun and fresh air where no crowds of people, just silenceand leisure are.There are some traditions concerning food. English cooking is heavy,substantial and plain. The Englishman likes a good breakfast. To him agood breakfast means porridge with, fish, bacon and eggs, toast andmarmalade, tea or coffee.

Tea is part of the prose of British life, as necessary as potatoes and bread.Seven cups of it wake you up in the morning; 9 cups will put you to sleepat night.

The English have a popular specialty known as fish and chips. They arebought at special fish and chips shops.

5. New Year's Day in UKThe celebration of New Year's Day varies according to the district. In thesouth of England, the festival of Christmas, lasting 12 days from December25th, runs on well into the New Year. The decorations of colored streamersand holly, put up round the walls, and of course the fir-tree, with itscandles or lights, are not packed away until January 5th. On the evening ofDecember 31st, people gather in one another's homes, in clubs, in pubs, inrestaurants, and hotels, in dance halls and institutes, to "see the New Yearin".On New Year's Day all English schoolchildren make New Year resolutions.

They make up lists of shortcomings which they intend to correct. Thechildren, their mothers and fathers, and their friends laugh and have agood time when they read them. The children promise to keep them.In the north, and in Scotland, particularly, the Year known as Hogmanay isvery well kept up. The ceremonies are similar, but they have an addedcalled "first foot". This means opening your door to anyone who knocks itafter midnight, and who will then enter the house, carrying a piece of coal-or wood, or bread. The visitor is entertained with cakes and ale.Considerable quantities of good Scotch whiskey are consumed duringthese celebrations6. Places of interest

There are a lot of places of interest in London. They are all worth seeing.On the north side of Trafalgar Square stands one of the world's greatest art


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galleries. The National Gallery represents all schools of Western paintingfrom the Italian Primitives to the early 20th century. Portraits by Reynolds

and Gainsborough can be seen here.Since the time of William the Conqueror the Tower of London has served asa fortress, a royal residence, treasury, mint and prison. Here many peoplewere imprisoned and beheaded. Now it's a museum.St. Paul's Cathedral is the largest and the most magnificent church of thecity. The High Altar forms a memorial to those who died in the two WorldWars.

The Victoria and Albert Museum represents the finest examples of theapplied and decorative arts of all kinds. It has collections of furniture,

jewellery, costumes, musical instruments and metalwork.The Barbican centre was opened by the Queen in 1982. It includes a

concert hall, the home of the London Symphony Orchestra, two theatres,three cinemas and an art gallery.Piccadilly Circus is one of London's busiest road-junctions. It's always full ofcars, people as there are many theatres, shops and restaurants there. Thestatue of Eros is in the middle of Piccadilly.One of the beautiful things in London is Madame Tussaud's museum. Itrepresents wax figures of the famous and infamous people of the past andpresent. The Chamber of Horrors is of particular interest and also Companyand the Royal Ballet.

7. Press in BritainProbably in no other country are there such great differences the variousnational daily newspapers- in the type of news they report and the waythey report it.On the one hand, there are the "quality" newspapers: The Times, TheIndependent, The Guardian, the Financial times and the Daily Telegraph.

These concern themselves, as far as possible, with factual reports of majornational and international events, with the world of political and businessand with the arts and sport.On the one hand, there are the "populars" and "tabloids", so-calledbecause of their smaller size. The tabloids- the most widely read of which

are The Daily Mail, The Daily Express, the Daily Mirror, The Sun and theDaily Star- concentrate on more emotive reporting of stories often


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featuring sex, violence, the Royal Family, film and pop stars, and sport. It isoften said that the popular press aims to entertain it's rather than inform

them.In addition to the 12 national daily newspapers there are nine nationalpapers which are published on Sundays. Most of the "Sundays" containmore reading matter than daily papers, and several of them also include"color supplements"- separate color magazines which containphotographically-illustrated feature articles.

The British are one of the biggest newspapers-reading nations in the world.8.Museums and Art Galleries of LondonLondon is very rich in museums and art galleries. If you are fond ofpainting you'll go to the Tate Gallery. There are about 300 oils and 19000watercolors and drawings. There are many works by the English painter

William Turner there. There are a lot of paintings by the 16-th centuryEnglish artists and paintings by foreign artists of the 19-20-th centuries,such as Pablo Picasso's paintings. There are many interesting sculpturesthere of Henry Moor's

The British Museum is the largest and richest of its kind in the world. Itcomprises the national museum of archaeology and ethnography and thenational library. The present building was built in 1852. It contains booksand manuscripts: Greek, Roman, British and Oriental antiques. It has adepartment of Ethnography. This collection is so vast that only a very smallpercentage of it is on show to the public. There's also a department of

prints and drawings. There're departments devoted to maps, coins, medalsand philately. Those who come to the British museum can see a fascinatingarray of clocks and watches.Cultural life of London would be impossible without the Royal Albert hall,the Royal Festival hall, the National theatre and a great number ofmuseums: the Victoria and Albert museum, the Geological Museum, theMuseum of Mankind, Natural history museum and others.9. The houses of Parliament

The house of Parliament in London, known also as the Palace ofWestminster is the place where members of Parliament (M.P.) gather tomake laws.

The members of each House meet in sessions which begin at the end ofOctober and last for about one hundred and sixty days. The sittings usually


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begin at 10 o'clock in the morning and end in the late afternoon; but ifParliament is discussing an important question sittings may go on till late

at night. All the time Parliament is in session, a flag can be seen over thebuilding, and when the House of Commons is still sitting after dark, there isa light over the face of Big Ben.

The members of the House of Commons sit on two sides of the hall. TheSpeaker is the chairperson at all the debates in the House of Commons,and it is duty to keep order. The Speaker is elected by all the members ofthe House of Commons. He belongs to one of the political parties inParliament, but he never votes are equal he votes with the government.

The chairperson of the House of Lords is Lord Chancellor. He sits on theWoolsack, a large bag of wool covered with red cloth. If shows that woolmade England rich

10. Political system of United KingdomGreat Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. It means that there is a Queen(or King) and the Parliament. The Queen has almost no power in thecountry. Her powers are limited by the Parliament. Laws are made by theParliament.

The Queen is only a formal ruler: she reigns but does not rule. In facteverything that she does is done on the active of her ministers, who areresponsible for the royal acts. Thus, most of her functions are symbolic.

The Queen's residence in London is Buckingham Palace.

The British Parliament consists of two cambers: the House if Lords and theHouse of Commons. There are more than 1000 members in the House ofLords. Many seats are hereditary.

The House of Commons has 635 members. They are elected by a generalelection (secret ballot).

The government is headed by the Prime Minister, who is the leader of theparty that has won the election.In Great Britain there are three main political parties: the Conservatives,the Labour Party and the Liberals.

11. Sightseeing London


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The Tower of London is the most famous of all the historical buildings inLondon. In the past the Tower of London served both as a palace and as a

state prison, but it is only a museum today.Trafalgar Square is in the centre of the West End of London. On the northside is the National Gallery; in the north-east corner is the National PortraitGallery, and in the centre is Nelson's Column with the figure of the greatseamen.

Trafalgar Square is the place where mass meetings and demonstrations forpeace and for working people's rights take place."Big Ben" is the name of the great bell which strikes the hour. It is in theclock Tower of the Houses of Parliament.Westminster Abbey is the historic building in London to which every visitorsooner or later goes. Many of Great Britain's famous men are buried in

Westminster Abbey.Piccadilly Circus is a square in the central part of London. London's best-known theatres and cinemas and most famous restaurants are onPiccadilly Circus. Hyde Park is the largest park in the West End of London.In the 19th century it became a popular place for public meetings.

The British Museum is one of the largest museums in the world. It consistsof the National Library and Museum of History, Archaeology, Art andEthnography.12. Some facts about LondonLondon has been home of many famous Englishmen. Some were born

there. Some lived there all their lives. Others lived in London only for ashort time but all gave something to this great cityOne of the first names of importance is that of Geoffrey Chaucer, the poet.He lived most of his life in London. He knew the courts of King Richard II dKing Henry IV. His most famous work, 'The Canterbury Tales", opens at the

Tabard Inn, in Southward.William Shakespeare also lived in London. He lived there for more thantwenty years. He acted at the Globe Theatre and wrote his plays in London.But London's famous men are not only writers. Sir Christopher Wren, thearchitect, spent most of his life in London. He designed many beautifulchurches, including St. Paul's Cathedral. He also designed palaces and fine

houses.Music is represented by a very interesting figure. This is George Frederick


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Handel. He came to London from Hanover in 1710After some success andsome failure he at last became famous. This happened when he composed

"The Messiah". "Judas Maccabeus" and 'The Music for the Royal Fireworks"Like Chaucer and many other great artists. Handel is buried in WestminsterAbbey.Another famous London figure is one of England's greatest seamen.Admiral Lord Nelson. He has a very special memorial in Trafalgar Square.Equally famous is the general who led the army at the battle of Waterloo in1815. This was the Duke of Wellington. His house stands at Hyde ParkComer. It is sometimes known as Number One, London. LikemAdmiral Nelson, the Duke of Wellington is buried in St. Paul's Cathedral.

13. Stratford-upon-AvonStratford-upon-Avon lies at the very heart of England. It attracts people notonly by its history and connection with William Shakespeare, but also by itswonderful nature and typical English character.Stratford stands on the river Avon and is one of the oldest market towns. Ithas still preserved its own character and atmosphere, as you will not seemodern buildings there. The houses are small and lots of them are veryold. Some of them date back to Shakespeare's time.Here you can visit Shakespeare's birthplace (it is a museum now), AnnaHathaway's cottage the foundations of the New Place, where Shakespeare

lived when he retired and died in 1616. Just round the corner there isGrammar school that Shakespeare used to attend.Here in Stratford there is Holy Trinity Church where William Shakespearewas buried. Thousands of people from all parts of England and foreignvisitors come here on Shakespeare's birthday (23rd April) to pay tribute tothe great poet.Among other sights connected with the name of Shakespeare there is aninteresting monument with the statue of the great poet on top and withcharacters from his plays round it. And, of course, you should visit theRoyal Shakespeare Theatre, a red-brick building standing on the banks ofthe Avon. The Royal Shakespeare Company, which is one of the best

known and largest theatre companies in the world, regularly performs hereand in the Barbican Centre in London.


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14. Youth organizations in Great BritainYouth and youth movement have become important factors in the life of

the country. There are about 60 youth organizations in Great Britain. Allyouth organizations can be divided into three large groups:1. non-political organizations;2. youth organizations associated with political parties;

3. youth organizations controlled by religious bodies.The two largest non-political youth organizations are the associations ofthe Boy Scouts and the Girl Guides.

The Scout movement was intended for boys from 11 to 14, but in 1916Baden Powell introduced a program for younger people. He called themWolf Cubs. They had special uniforms, badges, a special training system

and the motto "Do your best!"There are some other non-political organizations: the Combined CadetForce, Sea Cadet Corps, the Woodcraft Folk, the Youth Hostels Association,the National Federation of Young Farmers Clubs, Greenpeace.

Youth Organization Greenpeace deals with most urgent ecologicalproblems. It protests against nuclear weapon tests, sea and soil pollution,etc.Sport clubs are characteristic youth organizations in the UK. They unitepeople who are interested in basebaii, football, golf, etc.Religious young organizations and groups aim at helping to elderly people

or working in hospitals.Many of these organizations have done and still are doing useful work inproviding leisure facilities for young English people.15. Vegetation and wildlifeBritain was originally a land of vast forests. Mainly oak and beech in theLowlands and pine and birch In the Highlands, with great stretches ofmarshland and smaller areas of moors. Extensive forests remain in easternand northern Scotland and in south-eastern and western England. Oak,elm, ash, and beech are the commonest trees in England, while Scotlandhas much pine and birch.

The fauna or animal life of Britain is much like that of north-western

Europe, to which it was once joined. Many larger mammals such as bear,wolf have been hunted to extinction, others are now protected by law.


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There are many foxes. Otters are common along rivers and streams, andseals live along much of the coast. Hedgehogs, hares,

rabbits, rats and mice are numerous. Deer live in some of the forests in theHighlands of Scotland and England.Some 230 kinds of birds live in Britain, and another 200 are regularvisitors, many are songbirds. The most numerous are blackbirds, sparrowand starling. Robin Redbreast is the national bird of Britain. The number ofducks, geese and other water fowl has diminished during recent years.16. Holidays in Great BritainEnglish are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them. Englishpeople celebrate Christmas on the 25th of December. It's the season ofgood will. It's the most beautiful time of the year - the time of love, joy and

hopes.There are some traditions on New Year's Day. One of them is the old FirstFooting. The first man to come into the house is very important. TheEnglishmen believe that he brings luck.Another best-loved holiday is St.Valentine's Day on the 14th of February -the holiday of love and affection, the day of sending and giving presents tothose you love.In England, Easter is a church holiday. A custom is decorating eggs forchildren. Halloween is the day or evening before all Saint's Day. Childrendress up in Halloween costumes and masks over their faces.

According to the Act of Parliament of 1871 there are 4 bank holidays EasterMonday, whit-Monday, Des 26th -Boxing Day. Other public holiday areGood Friday, May Day, Also there is a Pancake Day, April's Fool Day,Mother's Day.17. Educational system in Great Britain

The educational system of Great Britain is extremely complex andbewildering. It is very difficult to generalize about particular types ofschools as schools differ from one to the other.Primary education takes place in infant schools for pupil's ages from 5 to 7years old and junior schools (from 8 to 11 years). Some areas havedifferent systems in which middle schools replace junior schools and take

pupils ages from 9 to 11 years. Secondary education has been available inBritain since 1944. It is compulsory up to the age of 16, and pupils can stay


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at school voluntarily up to three years longer.At the age of 16 pupils take school-leaving examinations in several

subjects at the Ordinary level. This examination could also be taken bycandidates at a further education establishment. This exam was called theGeneral Certificate of Education (GCE). Pupils of comprehensive school hadtaken the examination called the Certificate of Secondary Education eitherwith or instead of the GCE. A GCE of Advanced ("A") level was taken twoyears after the Ordinary level exam.

The private sector is running parallel to the state system of education.There are over 2500 fee-charging independent schools in GB. Most privateschools are single-sex until the age of 16.

There are over 90 universities in GB. They are divided into three types: theold universities (Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh Universities), in the

19th century universities, such as London and Manchester universities, andthe new universities.Full courses of study offer the degree of Bachelor of Art or Science. Mostdegree courses at universities last three years, language courses 4 years.Medicine and dentistry courses are longer (5-7 years).Most students live away from home, in flats of halls of residence.

There are not only universities in Britain but also colleges. Colleges offercourses in teacher training, courses in technology and some professionsconnected with medicine. 18. Buckingham PalaceBuckingham palace is the official London residence of Her Majesty The

Queen and as such is one of the best known and most potent symbols ofthe British monarchy. Yet it has been a royal residence for only just overtwo hundred and thirty years and a palace for much less; and its name,known the world over, is owed not to a monarch but to an English Duke.

JMBuckingham House was built for John, first Duke of Buckingham, between1702 and 1705. It was sold to the Crown in 1762. Although King George IIImodernized and enlarged the house considerable, the transformations thatgive the building its present palatial character were carried out for KingGeorge IY by Nash, by Edward Blore for King William IY and Queen Victoria

in the end, and by James Pennethoooorne.In the reign of King Edward Yll, much of the present white and gold


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decoration was substituted for the richly colored 19th century schemes ofNash and Blare; and in the 1920s, Queen Mary used the firm of White Alum

to redecorate a number of rooms.The rooms open to visitors are used principally for official entertainment.These include Receptions and State Banquets, and it is on such occasions,when the rooms are filled with flowers and thronged with formally dressedguests and liveried servants, that the Palace is seen at its most splendidand imposing. But of course the Palace is also far more than just theLondon home of the Royal Family and a place of lavish entertainment. Ithas become the administrative centre of the monarchy where, among amultitude of engagements, Her Majesty receives foreign Heads of State,Commonwealth leaders and representatives of the Diplomatic Corps andconducts Investitures, and where the majority of the Royal Household,

consisting of six main Departments and a staff of about three hundredpeople, has their offices.19. Media in Great Britain

The media play a central role in Britain's daily life, informing andeducating, questioning and challenging - and of course - entertaining. Inrecent years the availability of more radio frequencies, together withsatellite, cable and microwave transmissions, has already made a greaternumber of local, national and international services possible. The transitionfrom analogue to digital transmission technology is now expanding thiscapacity enormously. Broadcasting in Britain has traditionally been based

on the.55.principle that it is a public service accountable to people. While retainingthe essential public service element, it now also embraces the principles ofcompetition and choice:- the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), which broadcaststelevision and radio programs;- the ITC (Independent Television Commission), which licenses andregulates commercial television services, including cable and satelliteservices;- the Radio Authority, which licenses and regulates commercial radio

services, including cable and satellite;The three bodies work to broad requirements and objectives defined and


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endorsed by Parliament, but are otherwise independent in their dailyconduct of business.

Cable services are delivered through underground cables and are paid forsubscription. Cable franchises have been granted covering areascomprising 83 per cent of all homes and nearly all urban areas in Britain. Inmid - 1999 there were about 12.1 million homes able to receive suchservices, and 3 million subscribing homes. Digital technology is beingintroduced which will support up to 500 television channels. Cable also hasthe capacity for computer - based interactive services, such as homeshopping and email. Satellite television and cable services are fundedmainly by subscription income.

Television viewing is by far Britain's most popular leisure pastime: over 97per cent of households have at least one TV set. British television

productions are sold world - wide20. European Union

The establishment of the EU intended to work toward common goals ofEuropean countries.

The EU was established after 2nd World War. France officially undertookthe establishment of the EU proposing to create "the first concretefoundation of a European federation". On May 9, 1950 the EU was createdand initially six European countries joint to the EU: Belgium, Germany,France, Italy, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands. Then other countries jointto the EU and today the number of the

re-SLmember countries is 27. The requirements for the countries willing tobecome member of EU are the following:Member countries must be a stable democracy, respecting human rights,the rule of law, and the protection ofminorities;Member countries must have a functioning market economy;

The EU has such a structure that there are 5 institutions and each of themis responsible for a respective objective:


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European Parliament - The main functions of this institution is to exercisethe issues related to the legislation, implementing foreign and security

policy, monitor the budget.Council of the European Union - This is the most influential institution indecision making process. The main function of this institution is to exercisethe issues related to the legislation, to suggest and monitor theinternational agreements, implementing foreign and security policy.European Commission - It is mainly responsible for creating the initialoutline of legislation, implementing the legislation to assure that law isproperty applied, and representing the EU in international scope andsigning trade and cooperation agreements.Court of Justice -checks whether laws are in the accordance with the justiceor not

Court of Auditors - Its major function is to check whether all the Union'srevenues and expenditures are going in a regular manner, according to theEU budget.

Today EU became driving force into the international market for membercountries. Such kind of economic communities are needed to increasetoday's economic growth and make countries better off.21. Role of the USA in the world politicsIt is impossible to discuss a future role of the United States of America inthe world without understanding the global processes that have beentaken place in the world over the last several years. September 11, without

doubt, was a break point event in these processes. First, it showed peoplea danger of an international terrorism. Second, the event brought about aconfrontation between two different viewpoints on the development ofworld politics. On the one hand, politicians from many countries believethat any active actions to preserve world order must be organized only byUnited Nations. On the other hand, the United States is pushing forward itsaggressive unilateral policy that is based only on Washington'sunderstanding of the current international situation.

This US strategy was clearly demonstrated in Iraq. Now, after two and ahalf years of the war, the question must be asked if this policy achieved itsgoals. Did it bring a peace and stabilization in the post Sad am country?

Yes, the military operation itself was a success. Despite the militarysuccesses, this strategy did not produce desirable results. The USA cannot


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stabilize the situation, and the Iraqis continue to organize attacks againstthe US and coalition forces.

It is possible that the USA will not be able to continue its unilateral policyanymore because it goes against objective processes in the world economyand international relations. The political regimes in European countries arevery close to American, so any military confrontations are very unlikely atthis point. But an economical competition would be intense. It could besaid that the other war, between the euro and the dollar, is already on, andthe dollar is loosing so far.

There is another potential threat to the USA. Only a few years ago, a dollarwas almost equivalent to gold. People and businesses all over the worldtried to keep their savings in dollars. Now, when a dollar is getting cheaper,many try to get rid of it and buy euros. What would happen if all this dollar

cash came back to the USA? India, Japan, and Russia will probably also tryto make their influence on the world politics comparable with theireconomical potential.One thing is clear, however, the future of the country directly depends ontoday's policy.22. Geographical position of USA

The United States of America is the fourth largest country in the world(after Russia, Canada and China). It moccupies the southern part of North America and stretches from the Pacificto the Atlantic Ocean. It also includes Alaska in the north and Hawaii in the

Pacific Ocean. The total area of the country is about nine and a half millionsquare kilometers. The USA borders on Canada in the north and on Mexicoin the south. It also has a sea boarder with Russia.

The USA is made up of 50 states and the District of Columbia, a specialfederal area where the capital of the country, Washington, is situated. Thepopulation of the country is about 250 million.

The highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and theSierra Nevada. The highest peak is Mount McKinley, which is located inAlaska.America's largest rivers are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Rio Grandeand the Columbia. The Great Lakes on the border with Canada are the

largest and deepest in the USA.The climate of the country varies greatly. The coldest regions are in the


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north. The climate of Alaska is arctic. The climate of the central part iscontinental. The south has subtropical climate. Hot winds blowing from the

Gulf of Mexico often bring typhoons. The USA is a highly developedindustrial country. It is the world's leading producer of copper and oil andthe world's second producer of iron ore and coal. Among the mostimportant manufacturing industries are aircraft, cars, textiles, radio andtelevision sets, armaments, furniture and paper.

The largest cities are New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit,San Francisco and others.

The United States is a federal union of 50 states, each of which has its owngovernment. The seat of the central (federal) government is Washington,DC. According to the US Constitution the powers of the government aredivided into 3 branches: the executive, headed by the President, the

legislative, exercised by the Congress, and the juridical. The Congressconsists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are twomain political parties in the USA: the Republican and the Democratic

62.23. ScotlandScotland is administrative division of the kingdom of Great Britain,occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain. As a geopoliticalentity Scotland includes 186 nearby islands, a majority of which arecontained in three groupsnamely, the Hebrides, also known as theWestern Islands, situated off the western coast; the Orkney Islands,

situated off the northeastern coast; and the Shetland Islands, situatednortheast of the Orkney Islands. The largest of the other islands is theIsland of Arran. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland as well as a majorindustrial area and seaportNotable among the lakes, which are especially numerous in the central andnorthern regions, are Loch Lomond (the largest), Loch Ness, Loch Tay, andLoch Katrina. The longest river of Scotland is the Tay; the Clyde, however,is the principal navigational stream, site of the port of Glasgow.Like the climate of the rest of Great Britain, that of Scotland is subject tothe moderating influences of the surrounding seas The most commonspecies of trees indigenous to Scotland are oak and coniferschiefly fir,

pine, and larch.The only large indigenous mammal in Scotland is the deer. Both the red


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deer and the roe deer are found, but the red deer, whose habitat is theHighlands, is by far the more abundant of the two species. Other

indigenous mammals are the hare, rabbit, otter, ermine, pine marten, andwildcat. Game birds include grouse, blackcock, ptarmigan, and waterfowl.Both agriculture and industry are important in the economy of Scotland.

The chief exports are petroleum and natural gas and manufactured goods,especially burlap, clothing, machinery, textiles, and whiskey.

The chief imports are food and ironThe most populous city in Scotland is Glasgow. Other important industrialcities are Dundee and Aberdeen.Scotland is governed as an integral part of Great Britain. It is representedby 72 members in the House of Commons and by 16 Scottish peers in theHouse of Lords.

1Q24. Olympic Games

The Olympic Games have a very long history. They began in 777 BC inGreece and took place every four years for nearly twelve centuries atOlympia. They included many different kinds of sports: running, boxing,wrestling, etc. All the cities in Greece sent their best athletes to Olympia tocompete in the Games. For the period of the Games all the wars stopped.So the Olympic Games became the symbol of peace and friendship.In 394 AD the Games were abolished and were not renewed until manycenturies later.

In 1894, a Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, addressed all the sportsgoverning bodies and pointed out the significance of sports and itseducational value.

Two years later the first modern Olympic Games took place. Of course, thecompetitions were held in Greece to symbolize the continuation of thecenturies-old tradition. In 1896 the International Olympic Committee wasset up. It is the central policymaking body of the Olympic movement. It isformed by the representatives of all countries which take part in theOlympic Games.

The International Olympic Committee decides upon the programmed of thegames, the number of the participants and the city host for the Games.

Over one hundred and fifty countries are represented in the InternationalOlympic Committee now. Besides, each country has its National Olympic


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Committee.Summer and Winter Games are held separately. There are always several

cities wishing to host the Games. The most suitable is selected by theInternational Committee. After that the city of the Games startspreparations for the competitions, constructs new sports facilities,stadiums, hotels, press centers. Thousands of athletes, journalists andguests come to the Games, and it takes great efforts to arrangeeverything.

There is always an interesting cultural programmer of concerts,exhibitions, festivals, etc., for each Games.

ZiThe next summer games will be held in Beijing, Republic of China.25. Holidays in USA

The U.S. has no national holidays. Legal holidays - days on which banks,schools, or other public institutions and most places of business are closed.Memorial Day is a legal holiday, observed annually on the last Monday inMay in most of the UnitedIndependence Day is an annual holiday commemorating the formaladoption by the Continental Congress of the Declaration of Independenceon July 4, 1776, in Philadelphia. Although the signing of the Declarationwas not completed until August, the Fourth of July holiday has beenaccepted as the official anniversary of United States independence and iscelebrated in all states and territories of the U.S.

The Fourth of July is traditionally celebrated publicly with parades andpageants and public speeches.Thanksgiving Day, a legal holiday in the U.S., was first celebrated in earlycolonial times in New England. President Abraham Lincoln appointed a dayof thanksgiving, and since then each president has issued a ThanksgivingDay proclamation, generally designating the fourth Thursday of Novemberas a holiday.New Year's Day is the first day of the year, January 1 in the Gregoriancalendar.Christmas is an annual festival, held on December 25, to celebrate theNativity, or birth of Christ. The Christmas tree, an evergreen trimmed with

lights and other decorations, is derived from the so-called paradise tree,symbolizing Eden.


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Saint Valentine's Day, a holiday honoring lovers, is celebrated on February14. There is a custom of sending greeting cards or gifts to express

affection. St. Valentine has traditionally been regarded as the patron saintof lovers.26. WashingtonWashington is the capital city of the United States. It is located on thenorth bank of the Potomac River. It was called after George Washington,the first President of the USA, Washington is one of the most beautiful andunusual cities in the United States. It has little industry, and only onemillion people. One reason Washington looks different from other cities isthat no building in the city may be more than 40 meters tall. There are noskyscrapers, because they would hide the city's many monuments from

view. One can easily find a park, a square or an open area there. The mostimpressive and the best-known ones are the Lincoln Memorial and theWashington Monument.

The heart of Washington is the Capitol, which is connected with the WhiteHouse by Pennsylvania Avenue. It dominates the city of Washington. Allthe tourists begin sightseeing from the Capitol and see the SenateChamber, the Hall of Representatives, the Statuary Hall and some others.

The Washington Monument, the tallest stone structure in the USA, is in thePotomac River. It was opened to the public in 1888. It is 555 feet tall, iscalled the "Pencil" because of its shape. It is three blocks south of the

White House. There is an elevator, which will carry you to 500-foot levelobservation windows. The Lincoln Memorial is in the west of theWashington Monument. It is designed like a Greek temple. The dominantfigure is the realistic figure of Abraham Lincoln seated in the centre of theopen temple. The Jefferson Memorial is worth seen, too. It is situated southof the Washington monument near the Potomac River. The Library ofCongress contains millions of books and manuscripts. The WashingtonCathedral is on Massachusetts Avenue, and the Arlington NationalCemetery is outside the city limits just across the Potomac River near thePentagon in Virginia. The famous Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is visited bymillions of people every year.

Washington is the place where mass demonstrations take place againstunemployment and racism, for democracy and civil rights.


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27. Theatres in Great BritainOne peculiarity of the theatres in Great Britain is a follows: there are two

kinds of seats, which can be booked an advanced (book able), andunbootable once have no numbers and the spectators occupy them on theprincipal: first come - first served. And ancient time's plays were actedinside churches and later on the market places. The first theatre in England"The Backfires" build in 1576, and "The Globe" build in 1599, which isclosely connected with William Shakespeare. Speaking about our times weshould first of all mention "The English National theatre", "The RoyalShakespeare Company" and "Covent Garden". The first "Covent Gardentheatre" was built in 1732. It was burnt down in 1808 and rebuilds exactlya year after. It opened in September 1809, with Shakespeare's "Macbeth".Since the middle of the last century "Covent Garden" became exclusively

devoted to opera.Now "Covent Garden" in busier than ever, it is one of the few well-knownopera houses open for 11 months of the year and it employs over 600people both of the Opera company and the Royal Ballet.

Theatres are very much the same in London as anywhere else; the chieftheatres, music halls and cinemas are in the West End. If you are staying inLondon for a few days, you'll have no difficulty whatever in findingsomewhere to spend an enjoyable evening. You'll find opera, ballet,comedy, drama, revue, musical comedy and variety. The best seats attheatres are those in the stalls, the circle and the upper circle. Then comes

the pit, and the last of all the gallery where the seats are cheapest. Boxes,of course, are the most expensive.At the West End theatres you can see most of the famous English actorsand actresses. As a rule, the plays are magnificently staged - costumes,dresses, scenery, everything being done of the most lavish scale.28. Famous people of America

There are many outstanding people in United States. America producedstatesmen, thinkers, explorers, musicians, writers, scientists and otherpeople who are well known around the world.Samuel Langhorne Clemens, is known to most people as Mark Twain.While he worked as a reporter he began to sign his articles "Mark Twain".

From then on Clemens used Mark Twain as his pen-name.While he spent his summers on his farm, he wrote "The Adventures of Tom


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Sawyer", published in 1876."The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", "Tom Sawyer" and "Huckleberry

Finn" are among the most popular books ever published in the UnitedStates. Among Mark Twain's other books are "Joan of Arc", "Life on theMississippi".Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States.Lincoln became president in 1860. In 1861, there was a war between theNorth and the South of the United States. The people in the South wanteda separate government from the United States. The North wanted theUnited States to stay together as one country. Lincoln was the leader ofthe North.

The North won the Civil War. The war ended on April 9, 1865. Six dayslater, President Lincoln and his wife went to the theatre. Inside the theatre,

a man went behind the president and shot him in the head. The man'sname was John Wilkes Booth. He was a supporter of the South. Lincoln diedthe next morning.Ernest Hemingway is one of the greatest 20th-century American writers.He was a brilliant writer of stories and novels. His most successful novelsare the following: For Whom The Bells Tolls, The Old Man and the Sea andothers He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1954.29. Education in USA

The general pattern of education in the USA is an eight-year elementaryschool, followed by a four-year high school.

There are eight years of elementary schooling. The elementary school isfollowed by four years of secondary school, or high school. Often the lasttwo years of elementary and the first years of secondary school arecombined into a junior high school.Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of theelementary school. During the four-year high school program the studentstudies four or five major subjects per year, and classes in each of thesesubjects meet for an hour a day, five days a week. In addition, the studentusually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times aweek. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not the work ofthe entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in

order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation.Usually there is no admission examination required by a state university


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for those who have finished high school within the state. Sometimes acertain pattern of high school studies is necessary, however, and some

state universities require a certain scholastic average, or average of highschool grades.It usually takes four years to meet the requirements for a Bachelor of Artsor Bachelor of Science degree. A Master of Arts or Master of Sciencedegree may be obtained in one or two additional years. The highestacademic degree is the ! Doctor of Philosophy. It may take any number ofyears to complete the original research work necessary to obtain thisdegree.In general, higher education in the USA may be divided into two broadfields: liberal arts and professional. Each of these fields may be furthersubdivided into undergraduate and graduate levels. The liberal arts

program, on the undergraduate level, may be a two-year junior collegecourse, or a four-year course leading to a degree of Bachelor of Arts orBachelor of Science. The four-year course is usually subdivided into a lowerdivision (which may be called the junior college), consisting of the two firstyears, and the upper division, which is the last two years. The first twoyearscontinue the general education and specialization begins in the third year.30. Fast Food of AmericaHave you ever enjoyed a hamburger, sitting on a lawn? May be you're

against all these hot dogs and cheeseburgers, because it's a junk food.Anyway, it is always interesting to find out something about the origin andhistory of such trifles, which make our life more comfortable. They reallymake life more pleasant, especially outdoors, don't they?Pop Corn- It's impossible to imagine American takeaway food or snackswithout popcorn. Clear as a day, it is made from corn. But what about thefirst part of the word "pop". Actually, when you put a kernel of corn on afire, the water inside makes the corn explode. This makes a "pop" noise.

That is why we call it popcorn. But in 1945 a new machine was inventedthat changed the history of the product. The electric machine enabled topop corn outside the home. And soon movies started selling popcorn to

make more money. The famous American habit of eating popcorn at themovies is well-known. Many people like to put salt or melted butter in their


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popcorn, some peeper to have it without. Either way Americans love theirpopcorn

Coca Cola- Coca-Cola The world famous fresh drink Coca-Cola first was anall-purpose medicine, made in 1886 by a druggist from Atlanta, who madea brown syrup by mixing coca leaves and cola nuts. The syrup wasn't asuccess and then another druggist, Jacobs, had an idea of selling Coca-Colaas a soda fountain drink. He mixed the syrup with soda water. Sooneveryone was going to soda fountains and asking for Coca-Cola. And theWorld War II helped to make Coca-Cola popular outside America, when theCoca-Cola Company sent bottles of the drink to US soldiers fighting inEurope. It became so popular with the soldiers that the US Army asked thecompany to start ten factories in Europe. It's a curious thing but of 1903coca leaves were no longer used in the drink. The exact ingredients and

the quantities are not known - the Coca-Cola Company keeps its recipe asecret31. Political system of USA

The nation's capital, Washington, D.C., is the capital of a federal union of50 states. Therefore, in 1789, they adopted a new Constitution establishinga federal union under a strong central government.Under the Constitution, the federal government is divided into threebranches, each chosen in a different manner, each able to check andbalance the others.

The Executive Branch is headed by the President, who, together with the

Vice President, is chosen in nationwide elections every four years. Theelective process for a U.S. President is unique. The presidential candidateneeds 270 electoral votes to be elected; if no candidate has a majority, theHouse of Representatives make the decision. Any natural-born Americanwho is 35 years old or older may be elected to this office. The Presidentproposes bills to Congress, enforces federal laws, serves as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and, with the approval of the Senate makestreaties and appoints federal judges, ambassadors and other members ofthe Executive Departments

The Vice President, elected from the same political party as the President,acts as chairman of the Senate, and in the event of the death or disability

of the President, assumes the Presidency for the balance of his term.The Legislative Branch is made up of two houses: the Senate and the


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House of Representatives. Each state elects two members of the 100-member Senate; a Senator's term of office is six years

The Judicial Branch is made up of Federal District Courts (at least one inevery state), 11 Federal Courts of Appeals and, at the top, the SupremeCourt. Federal judges are appointed by the President with the approval ofthe Senate; to minimize political influences, their appointments are for life.Federal courts decide cases involving federal law, conflicts between statesor between citizens of different states.Every American citizen is allowed to vote from the age of 18.32. Science in 20th century

The 20th century began slowly, to the ticking of grandfather clocks and thestately rhythms of progress. Thanks to science, industry and moralphilosophy, mankind's steps had at last been guided up the right path. The

century of steam was about to give way to the century of oil andelectricity.Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, only 41 years old in 1900, proposed ascientific basis for the notion that progress was gradual but inevitable,determined by natural law.And everybody thought that the development would continue in the smallsteps that had marked the progress of the 19th century. Inventions like therailroad or the telegraph or the typewriter had enabled people to get onwith their ordinary lives a little more conveniently.No one could have guessed then that, in the century just beginning, new

ideas would burst upon the world with a force and frequency that wouldturn this stately march of progress into a long distance, free-for-all sprint.Thrust into this race, the children of the 20th century would witness morechange in their daily existence and environment than anyone else who hadever walked the planet.Assassinations in Sarajevo in 1914 lit a spark that set off an unprecedentedexplosion of destruction and death. The Great War did more thandevastate a generation of Europeans. It set the tone - the political, moraland intellectual temper - for much that followed.Before long the Great War received a new name - World War I. The roaring1920s and the Depression years of the 1930s proved to be merely a

prelude to World War II. Largely hidden during that war was an awful truththat called into question progress and the notion of human nature itself.


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But civilization was not crushed by the two great wars, and the ruinsprovided the stimulus to build a way of life again. To a degree previously

unheard of and perhaps unimaginable, the citizens of the 20th century feltfree to reinvent themselves. In that task they were assisted by twoprofound developments - psychoanalysis and the Bomb. 33. Sports in USAAmericans pay much attention to physical fitness. Many sports andsporting activities are popular in the USA. People participate in swimming,skating, squash and badminton, tennis, marathons, track-and-field, bowing,archery, skiing, skating etc. But the five major American sports are hockey,volleyball, baseball, football and basketball. Basketball and volleyball havebeen invented in America.

There is a large choice of sports in America. This can be explained by thesize and variety of the country. Another reason of the popularity of sports

is the people's love of competition of any kind. One more reason is thatAmericans use sports activities for teaching socials values, such asteamwork and sportsmanship. All this explains why Americans havetraditionally done well in many kinds of sports.Some Americans like active games and others like quite games. I think thatquite games, as golf and crocket, intend for rich elite people. Most populargames in the USA are hockey, American football, baseball, basketball.Opportunities for keeping fit and playing sports are numerous. Jogging isextremely popular, perhaps because it is the cheapest and most accessiblesport. Aerobic exercise and training with weight-lifting machines are two

activities which more and more men and women are pursuing. Books,videos, and fitness-conscious movie stars that play up the glamour offitness have heightened enthusiasm for these exercises and havepromoted the muscular, healthy body as the American beauty idealAmerican sports are becoming more competitive and more profit-oriented.As a result, playing to win is emphasized more than playing for fun. Theobsession with winning causes some people to wonder whether sports inAmerica should be such serious business34. The USA court system

The courts are the overseers of the law. They administer it, they resolvedisputes under it, and they ensure that it is and remains equal to and

impartial for everyone.In the United States each state is served by the separate court systems,


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state and federal. Both systems are organized into three basic levels ofcourts-trial courts, courts of appeal and High Court or Supreme Court.

Trial courts bear the main burden in the administration of justice. Casesbegin there and most instances are finally resolved there.The trial courts in each state include: common pleas courts, which havegeneral civil and criminal jurisdiction and smaller in importance municipalcourts, country courts and mayor's courts

The main job of courts of appeal is to review cases appealed from trialcourts to determine if the law was correctly interpreted or applied.

The Supreme Court of each state is primarily a_ court of appeal and thecourt of last resort.

The federal court structure is similar to the structure of the state courtsystem. The trial courts in the federal system are the United States District

Courts. The United States courts of appeal are intermediate courts ofappeal between the district courts and the United States Supreme Court.

The USA Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation and the court oflast resort. It consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all ofwhom are appointed for life by the President with the Advice and Consentof the Senate. The duty of the Supreme Court is to decide whether lawspassed by Congress agree with the Constitution. The great legal issuesfacing the Supreme Court at present are Government involvement withreligion, abortion and privacy rights, and race and sex discrimination.35. Sports in Great Britain

National sports in Great Britain... It is a very interesting question, becausemany kinds of sport have taken the origin in England. The Englishmen lovesports, they are called sports-lovers in spite of the fact that some of themneither play games nor even watch them. They only like to speak aboutsports. Some kinds of sport are professional in England. Many traditionalsporting contests take place in England, for example, cricket. It is playedfrom May till September.Football, it has got a long history. Football was played by the whole villageteams in the middle ages in England. Now football is the most populargame in Britain. It is a team game. There are some amateur teams butmost of the teams are professional ones in England. Professional football is

a big business. Football is played at schools too.Rugby is a popular game in England. There are many amateur rugby teams


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in this country. It is a game that is played between two teams of playersusing an oval ball that can be handled or kicked. The captain of the team

must be the oldest or best player.There are some tennis clubs in England, but if you play there it isnecessary to pay money for it. Englishmen like playing tennis but many ofthem prefer to watch this game. Wimbledon it is the centre of lawn tennis.Englishmen pay much attention to swimming, rowing and walking. Usuallythe OxfordCambridge Boat Race takes place at the end of March or atthe beginning of April. It is an interesting contest between the universitiesof Oxford and Cambridge. It is usually held on the Thames River. The firstsuch race was held in 1820. There were a lot of people watching this race.

There are some racing competitions in England. They are motor-car racing,dog-racing, donkey-racing, boat-racing, horse-racing. All kinds of racings

are popular in England. It is interesting to see the egg-and-spoon race. Therunner, who takes part in this competition, must carry an egg in a spoon. Itis not allowed to drop the egg. There are such competitions as putting theweight, tossing the caber and others.

The English are great lovers of sports.36. History of Great Britain

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country ofgreat history rich in important events and entertaining legends connectedwith them. It's not enough to write several volumes to tell the full history ofthe country.

That's why we'll try to answer the question where the British come fromand who they are. After 800 BC the Celts arrived from Central Europe andopened up a new important page of the British history. The name Britaincomes from the name of a Celtic tribe known as the Britons. Their influencewas greatest in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, as they were driven to theseparts by the invaders who followed them. That's why these parts of Britainare very different from England in language, customs and traditions.However quite soon it was attacked by Germanic tribes: People began tocall the new land of the Angles and Saxons England. Wales, Cornwall, thenorthern part of Britain and Ireland remained unconquered and preservedCeltic culture. An important event which contributed to the unification of

the country was the adoption of Christianity in England in 664. In the 9thcentury the Danes attacked England. It was Alfred who defeated the Danes


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making them sign a peace agreement.The last of the invaders to come to Britain were the Normans from France.

The French language became the official language of the ruling class forthe next three centuries. This explains the great number of French words inEnglish.However the final unification of Scotland and England took place in 1707when both sides agreed to form a single parliament in London for GreatBritain, although Scotland continued to keep its own system of law,education and have an independent church.Ireland was England's first colony, but even now there are problems thereconnected with religion. Recently, there have been many waves ofimmigration into Britain. NowBritain is a multinational society, which benefits from the influence of

different people and cultures. 37. William ShakespeareThe last half of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries are knownas the golden age of English literature. It was the time of the EnglishRenaissance, and sometimes it is even called "the age of Shakespeare".William Shakespeare, the greatest and most famous of English writers, andprobably the greatest playwright who has ever lived, was born on the 23dof April, 1564, in Stratford-on-Avon. In sprite of his fame we know very littleabout his life. At the age of six he was sent to school, but had to leave it atthe age of 13. His father, John Shakespeare, was a glove-maker, and whenhe fell into debt, William had to help him .When Shakespeare was twenty-

one, he went to London. We don't know why he left Stratford-on-Avon.There is a story that Shakespeare's first job in London was holding richmen's horses at the theatre door. But nobody can be sure that this story istrue. Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of a verysuccessful acting company. It's highly probable that The Comedy of Errors,Romeo and Juliet and some other plays by Shakespeare were performedfor the first time on this stage. Shakespeare's experience as an actorhelped him greatly in the writing of his plays. His knowledge of stage andhis poetical genius made his plays the most wonderful ones ever written.Shakespeare wrote 37 plays: 10 tragedies (such as Hamlet, King Lear,Othello, Macbeth), 17 comedies (such as As You Like It, Twelfth Night,

Much Ado About Nothing), 10 historical plays (such as Henry 4, Richard 3).He also left 7 books of poems and sonnets. Most of Shakespeare's plays


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were not published in his lifetime. So some of them may have been lost inthe fire when the "Globe" burned down in 1613. Shakespeare spent the

last years of his life at Stratford, where he died in 1616. He was buried inthe church of Stratford. A monument was erected to the memory of thegreat playwright in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.38. New YorkNew York City is the capital of USA It is the most populous city in theUnited States. For more than a century, it has been one of the world'sleading business, financial and cultural centers and its influence in politics,education, entertainment, sports, media, fashion and the arts all contributeto its status as one of the major global cities. As the home of the UnitedNations, the city is a hub for international diplomacy. Residents of the cityare known as New Yorkers.

New York has five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Islandand the Bronx. The Bronx is famous for a zoo, which is situated there.Manhattan is the center of New York City. Near 1 million people live here,but over than 5 million come here to work from all parts of the city everyday. The main street, Broadway, is also here. And there are a lot of otherfamous streets which known nationwide. Wall Street is famous for finance.Madison Avenue means advertising, and Fifth Avenue is famous for world-class shopping. There is a famous crossing Times Square. It famous for

Theatre district, there are more than thirty theaters there, and everyevening they play their plays.

Most of New York's skyscrapers are located on the island of Manhattan.There are such buildings as Art Deco Chrysler Building and there were twintowers of the World Trade Center. One of the famous building in the worldis the Statue of Liberty. It was built in 1886. It was a present from thepeople of France. It represents America's symbol of freedom!In 2005, nearly 170 languages were spoken in the city and 36 percent ofits population was born outside the United States. New York is also knownas "The City that Never Sleeps," not least because its subway systemoperates around the clock and because many neighborhoods in Manhattan,such as Times Square, are busy at all hours.39. Australian culture.

Since 1788, the primary basis of Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic,although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the


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environment and indigenous culture. Over the past 50 years, Australianculture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture

(particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbors. The vigor andoriginality of the arts in Australia literature, cinema, opera, music,painting, theatre, dance, and crafts have achieved internationalrecognition.In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the onlyAustralian to have achieved this; he is recognized as one of the greatEnglish-language writers of the 20th century. Australian English is a majorvariety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based onthose of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexicalitems and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard

English. Sport plays an important part in Australian culture, assisted by aclimate that favors outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15regularly participate in organized sporting activities. At an internationallevel, Australia has particularly strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball,rugby league, rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing andswimming. Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rulesfootball, horse racing, football (soccer) and motor .acing. Australia hasparticipated in every summer Olympic Games of the modern era, andevery Commonwealth Games. Australia hosted the 1956 Summer Olympicsin Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and has ranked

among the top five medal-takers since 2000Televised sport is popular;some of the highest rating television programs include the summerOlympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football(various codes) competitions40. EdinburghEdinburgh is the capital of Scotland and one of the most beautiful cities inEurope. It has been the capital of Scotlandsince 1437 and is the seat of the Scottish Parliament. It lies on seven hillsand goes down on those hills to the sea. The highest hill is three hundredmeters above the sea. From the street in the centre of the city you can see

ships coming to Edinburgh from different countries of the world.Many great men have lived and worked in this beautiful city. Robert Burns,


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the great Scottish poet published his first book of poems in Edinburgh.There is a monument to him in the city.

Walter Scott, the father of the historical novel in the world literature, wasborne in Edinburgh. The monument to Walter Scott is in the main street ofthe city.Robert Louis Stevenson, a famous English writer, was born and lived inEdinburgh. He loved the city and wrote about it his best novels.Edinburgh is well-known for the annual Edinburgh Festival, a collection ofofficial and independent festivals held annually over about four weeks fromearly August. The number of visitors attracted to Edinburgh for theFestival, is roughly equal to the settled population of the city. The mostfamous of these events are the Edinburgh Fringe (the largest performingarts festival in the world), the Edinburgh International Festival, the

Edinburgh Military Tattoo, and the Edinburgh International Film Festival. Infact the city is one of the most vibrant, cosmopolitan cities in Europe and isregularly voted as one of the most desirable places to live in the world.Thisis a city that knows how to be both ancient and modern. And a fantasticplace to live.

CREATIVITATEAAcest capitol contine 40 de teme libere inspirate de realitateainconjuratoare, din viata de fiecare zi.1. Problems of the youth

Youth is the time when a person is trying to find his place in the world

One of the problems is a generation gap. Every generation is unique in itsexperience. It has its own ideals and a system of values concerning every


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aspect of human life. Adults always complain that the young are not whatthey were. These words are repeated from generation to generation. The

young know what they want. They prefer to make their own mistakesrather than to listen to the warnings of the adults. The past exists to helpthe young to avoid unnecessary blurs. But they do want to have them. Theyoung want to live their own life. They want to overcome their owndifficulties without turning back. Unfortunately the life of the young isfrequently determined by the adults. The adults start the war but theyoung die in it. And the solution to this problem is that both the young andadults should be tolerant and patient to each other.Another problem of the youth is the relationship of the young people withtheir friends and beloved.

The problem of love is very important for the young. It is regrettable, but

the young are not always ready to have stable relations. For a happyfamily life two people must understand and respect each other. It shouldbe said that the young have other problems as well. They are concernedwith education, money, employment, hobby, spending their free time,communication, and the like. And of course one of the most urgentproblems is the accommodations problem. Few young people in ourcountry have their own apartments. In the main they share the apartmentswith their parents even after getting married.In general all the problems of the youth are linked with the present ratherthen with the past or future.

2. City life-advantages and disadvantages of living incitiesEvery now and then we ask ourselves whether it's better to live in a cityour in a countryside.City life has its advantages and disadvantages. First of all, it is easier tofind work in the city than in the country, besides, salaries are much higherand one has a larger variety of jobs to pick from. Moreover, cities are thecenters of culture and social life. Living in a city one has all sorts ofmuseums, theatres, exhibitions, movie theatres, pubs, restaurants at theircommand. Therefore there are a lot more free time facilities than in ruralareas.

Cities are also centers of education. Many young people move to citiesbecause there are more opportunities for continuing their education there.


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Usually country's largest and best universities are located in big cities.Another advantage it better living conditions. In the city people live in

more modern houses which need less work doing to them. That saves agreat part of their time and effort. Among the disadvantages there arecrime, pollution, high prices, enormous traffic jams and overcrowdedstreets and subway and of course the threat of the present - terrorism.From the point of view of ecology cities are not the best place to live in.Garbage and sewage are two major problems of cities as well as air andwater pollution.Besides it's not safe in terms of crime. For example, it is dangerous in bigcities to walk back home late in the evening. One can either get robbed oftheir purse, jewelry or mobile phone or even get attacked, for example.One has to watch out for pickpockets even in the daylight. Of course city

life has a lot of advantages and disadvantages, but if you get tired of sociallife, it is always a great pleasure to go to a country side with a beautifuland green view The atmosphere of rural life is also great as when you getthere it seems that time goes by slowly and there is no need to hurry.3. A question of taste. FashionFashion is something we deal with everyday. Even people, who say theydon't care what they wear, choose clothes every morning that say a lotabout them and how they feel that day.However, we definitely get fashion ideas from music clips, videos, booksand television. Movies also have a big impact on what people wear. For

example it is known that more sunglasses were sold in America after themovie Man in Black.Depending on their attitude towards clothes and fashion, people can bedivided in three groups:- fashion slaves, spending all their money on the latest clothes even ifthey don't look good in them;- fashion fans, who enjoy wearing modern clothes but not obsessed bythem;- people that just do not care the way they look;Of course there are big companies tha< do not allow people to come atwork in what they want, they have to respect the dress code, registered in

the policy of each big company. According to the dress code, an employeeis not allowed to wear certain items of clothing to work.


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For example, men are supposed to wear ties and business suits, andnobody is allowed to wear jeans, except on Fridays. Women's clothes are

not supposed to be skintight, too short and too open. All of the shirts aresupposed to have collars. Clothes also can't be too bright, the colors shouldcorrespond to the corporate colors - dark blue and white.4. Love means different things to different people

The subject of love is one that has inspired poets, writers, those lucky inlove and those who have been passed over by Cupid...Love has beendefined as wise, silly, profound, bitter, funny...It seems as if each and oneof us has a different understanding of love, or at least the attitude to lovevaries greatly from person to person.. It may be a surprising revelation tosome of us, because love has traditionally been considered to besomething that unites people( at least that's what I've been taught).And

yet, there's no use denying the fact that love has as many definitions asthere are human beings on this planet. And it doesn't

J2Qnecessarily mean that love no longer unites people. It just means that lovehas different dimensions, different sides that reflect our understanding oflife.But personally, I can't let myself be cynical about love. Maybe I'm tooyoung and inexperienced, but I believe it's a great feeling. Some say thatlove is the true meaning of our life, that love is all it's cracked up to be.

They also say that "love is the master key that opens the gates ofhappiness". I can't but agree. Love is something that makes us tender, andaffectionate, and caring...It's when another person's needs become moreimportant than yours and you don't see it as a burden. It's when you doyour best to make each other's lives somewhat easier in this troublesomeworld...Love is a feeling that makes you stronger and helps you get through acrisis. It's something I can't imagine my life without.5. Books in our livesDespite the increase in TV watching and the developing of World WideWeb, reading is still very important. So I don't think books need to be

rescued. Reading both entertains and educates people. Books help us todiscover new things and explore new ideas.


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The book is the surest way to bring nations together. It gives us an insightnot only into the past, but also into the future. The book is a faithful and

undemanding friend: it can be put aside and taken up again at anymoment. Reading is the perfect way to relax and spend your free time.Books portray life in its richness, so they develop reader's imagination andarouse curiosity, admiration. Sometimes they even can help to solvedifficult problems of life.I become very keen on literature early in life. This probably happenedbecause we had a very good and widely read library in home. Books stirredmy imagination, expanded the boundaries of the familiar world and filledmy life with great expectations of joy and happinessI'm fond of reading and I've read a lot of books of different genres. Andcertainly I have my favorite book. It is

91the story by Agatha Christie - "The murder of Roger Ackroyd". Some criticssay that Agatha Christie introduced a novelty in this work, because themurder is a storyteller. In the "The murder of Roger Ackroyd" the maincharacters and environment are typical for 1920th in England. The actiontakes place in a country house. The author shows us its owner with hishabits, relatives and neighbors. All this is presented vividly and brightly.One of the main heroes of the book Hercules Poirot gets over a lot ofproblems before catching a murder.Excitement, suspense, horror, revenge, and extraordinary talent,

astounding calmness of Hercules Poirot fill this book. "The murder of RogerAckroyd" has made a great impression on me. And nowadays it makesreally unforgettable impressive reading.6. Things I dislike in my schoolI like my school very much because I have spent the best years of my shortlife there. But in spite of it I dislike the whole system of education.What concerns my school the pupils are not free in their choice of thesubjects. And they are forced to study the subjects they are not interestedin and it takes them too much time to learn the subjects unnecessary fortheir future life. They could spend this time working on the subjects whichwill be needed for their future profession.

Besides, every day we have two breaks of 10 minutes and two breaks of 15minutes at school. But 15 minutes is not enough to have a lunch for the


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pupils. They are always in a hurry eating their lunch. It causes diseasesconnected with stomach. It should be mention that our lessons start at 8

o'clock. But the pupils have to come to school ten minutes to 8 to domorning exercises. I think there is not necessary to do them because onthe one hand some pupils do such exercises at home every morning andon the other hand it is not comfortable to do exercises in our schoolclothes.I think too many pupils study in every class. Most of them sit far from theblackboard. And sometimes they can'tKeep your wrists in a natural, unforced, straight position11. A ChildA child is the charming, creature. He is the sense, of QUI life. We cannotimagine our being without him and therefore we guard him by day and by

night. But who knows what vices can be grown up in this innocent soul. It'spossible him to be a great misfortune or even a disaster.

There a lot of such experienceNo, I'm not talking about the children becoming criminals but about the"normal" children making life with them completely intolerable. Theybother, disturb, shout, cry, run around you don't giving even a minute forrest. Their curiosity and plays could cause the terrible consequences.

The electricity often attracts children. They like to shove fingers into thesocket, to cut the wires, to shake the lustres, to twist the electrical lamps,etc. "Daddy, Show me how computer works", - said the son shoving by

screwdriver into the system block. "What have you done? It costs a smallfortune", - cried poor daddy looking at the black clouds of smoke risingabove the system block. "He is just a child", -explains mother her son'sbehavior.Everything starting by deodorants and finishing by the video's remotecontrol presents a danger in children's hands. It seems for them thateverything what they see is the toys and of course want to play.But the "toys" sometimes could be by no means harmless. For example,mentioned above deodorant can explode in the fire or just in the strongsun and cause the severe injures. By paper, by simple paper a child cancut his soft flesh and cause the hemorrhage. Because of that we have to

protect them from theirs own curiosity.Prevent a misfortune! That should be our device.


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After all a Woman and a Child are only for which is worthy to live12. Role of woman in society

The ongoing changes in social, political and economic spheres of thecountry entails not only the raise of women's role in society, in additionthey are accompanied by breaking of stereotypes to treat human beingsby sex that had been shaping through decades. Free economic relationsand temcsatvrato. of. aU. sj^xejcea. at Ivte, cw&te $ft basis, eventualequal social rights for any human being regardless of six-foot both of menand women.'From a tegar potnr of view, a man ancf a woman r'n our country are equal.However, in practice, there are no real mechanisms of women's rightsfulfillment as well as for their active participation in social life.Housework, chores and raising children are generally considered to belong

to a woman's domain. Despite the fact that birthrates in the country havebeen falling, children are obstacles in the labor market. It isunderstandable that women decide to defer having children later or do nothave children at all. Along with that, there is a lack of knowledge aboutmodem contraception and a correspondingly large number of abortions.However, the number of women taking part in the country's political,economic and civic life shows that women are restricted in the spheres ofpolitics and government. Women's salaries are on average lower thanmen's, and women are likewise far more likely to fall victim to violence andunemployment

So, the main goals are protection of women's rights and elimination ofdiscrimination in society; widening women's participation in policydecision-making processes on the local, regional and national levels;support for cooperation between women's organizations on the nationaland international arenas; widening access to international resources andexperience of women's organizations on an international level.10. Computers and HealthWithin the past two years, substantial media attention has been directed atpotential adverse health effects of long-term computer use. People thatspend most of the time working at computers should pay attention at thefollowing factors:

Light and glare- Eyestrain, headaches, and impaired vision are often aproduct of improper illumination resulting in glare, which is light within the


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field of vision that is brighter than other objects to which the eyes areadapted.

A NIOSH study recommends 200-500 lux for general office work; othersources suggest 500-700 lux for light characters on dark monitors andsomewhat more for dark-on-light. If documents are not sufficientlyilluminated, desk lights are recommended in preference to ceiling lights,which increase reflections from video screensBreaks and exercises- Working in the same position for too long causestension buildup and is thought to increase the risk of repetitive motioninjuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. Remedies include changingpostures frequently, performing other work interspersed with computing(some studies recommend a 10-15 minute break from the keyboard everyhour), and doing exercises such as tightening and releasing fists and

rotating arms and hands to increase circulation.In summary we may say that we hear a lot about hazards associated withworking with computers, and learn from experience that long hours at t

Civilizatie - Pregatire Pentru Bacalaureat Bac Limba Engleza.[Conspecte.md]

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