Argumente Pro Si Contra+ Wikipedia

7/28/2019 Argumente Pro Si Contra+ Wikipedia

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Argumente ProArgumentul 1: Animalele sunt fiinte vii care simt durerea.

Desi se considera ca oamenii, ca fiinte superioare, au dreptul de a controla viata animalelor si

implicit de a le supune unor experimente, totusi acestea sunt fiinte care simt durerea cu toate

ca nu o pot transpune in cuvinte.Experimentele efectuate pe animale nu tin cont de suferintele

pe care trebuie sa le indure acestea, iar abilitatea animalelor de a simti durerea le confera

dreptul la consideratii de ordin moral. Pe langa faptul ca sunt supuse unor experimente carora

nu se pot opune, animalele sunt tinute in laboratoare. Acestea sunt spatii necorespunzatoare,

deoarece creaturile sunt inchise in custi,de cele mai multe ori mult prea mici,privandu-le astfel

de dreptul la libertate.De asemenea sunt raportate cazuri in care ingrijitorii animalelor le

supun unor tratamente pline de cruzime care nu sunt justificate.Acestia tipa la animale, le

brutalizeaza si chiar nu le dau apa sau le infometeaza.O alta problema este reprezentata de

faptul ca animalele ce devin subiecti de experiment nu beneficiaza de tratament veterinar care

sa le diminueze eventualele dureri.

Argumentul 2: Exista metode alternative

Experimentele pe animale pot fi inlocuite cu succes de experimentele pe culturi de

tesuturi.Cele mai multe experimente efectuate in zilele noastre sunt facute pentru a determinadaca un anumit lucru este daunator fiintei umane.Desi animalele au un organism asemanator

omului ele pot totusi avea reactii diferite. De aceea experimentele efectuate pe culturi de

tesuturi extrase din corpul uman sunt mai precise.

Argumentul 3: Experimentele pot duce la mutatii

Experimentele facute pe animale sunt efectuate pentru a observa eventualele reactii ale

organismului.Insa ele pot avea si anumite efecte secundare cum ar fi mutatiile genetice.In

timpul experimentelor animalele sunt injectate cu diferite substante ce pot modifica structura

celulelor.Acest lucru poate duce la mutatii genetice periculoase ce pot avea ca rezultat crearea

unor noi boli sau a unor creaturi primejdioase.

Argumente ContraArgumentul 1: Experimentele pe animale sunt necesare pentru progresele in stiinta

Orice alt tip de experiment, cum ar fi cele genetice sau cu tesuturi nu sint suficiente pentru a

deduce care anume sint rezultatele unor noi produse sau efectele macro ale unor schimbari

genetice. De aceea avem nevoie de experimente cu animale, singurele care dau un raspuns

asupra reactiei intregului organism la o substanta sau o mutatie provocata.

Argumentul 2: Putem evita intr-o anumita masura experimentele pe subiecti umani

Putem evita si testarea pe subiecti umani intr-o oarecare masura pentru ca in unele cazuri

experimentele cu mamifere superioare[maimute, de exemplu]sunt suficiente, genomul si

comportamentele acestora fiind foarte asemanatoare celor ale omului.Astfel macar o parte din

efecte pot fi garantate prin testarile pe animale, urmand a fi apoi explorate efectele asupra

omului printr-un numar mult redus de experimente. Putem astfel evita afectarea grava avoluntarilor pentru testari sau lansarea pe piata a unor medicamente cu efecte novice, testate

insuficient pentru ca nu existau subiecti de testare.

Argumentul 3: Speciile de animale nu sunt afectate de aceste experimente

Animalele pe care se fac aceste experimente nu sunt din specii pe cale de disparitie si

majoritatea nu sint luate din captivitate, ci sint inmultite in laboratoare, cum ar fi diferitele

specii de sobolani. Suferinta acestora este spre beneficiul speciei animale insasi, pentru ca

ajungem sa cunoastem mai bine diferite tratamente veterinare sau boli ale acestor specii, cat


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si pentru oameni, putand descoperi medicamente care sa vindece sau sa amelioreze boli atat

de raspandite si distrugatoare.

Animal testing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Animal research" redirects here. For other uses, seeAnimal studies (disambiguation).

Animal testing

A Wistar laboratory rat

Description Around 50100

millionvertebrateanimals are

used in experiments annually.

Subjects Animal testing, science,

medicine, animal welfare,

animal rights, ethics

Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, animal research, and in vivotesting, is the use of

non-human animals in experiments (although some research about animals involves only natural behaviors or

pure observation, such as a mouse running a maze or field studies ofchimp troops). The research is conducted

inside universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies, farms, defense establishments, and commercial

facilities that provide animal-testing services to industry. [1]It includes pure research such

asgenetics,developmental biology,behavioral studies, as well as applied research such asbiomedical

research,xenotransplantation, drug testing andtoxicology tests, includingcosmetics testing. Animals are also

used for education, breeding, and defense research. The practice is regulated to various degrees in different

countries.

Worldwide it is estimated that the number ofvertebrateanimalsfrom zebrafish to non-humanprimates

ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used annually. [2]Invertebrates, mice, rats, birds, fish,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rat#Wistar_rathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vivohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vivohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_arm_mazehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee#Social_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee#Social_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee#Social_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-selectcommintro-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-selectcommintro-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_cosmetics_on_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_cosmetics_on_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_cosmetics_on_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wistar_rat.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_rat#Wistar_rathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vivohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_arm_mazehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee#Social_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-selectcommintro-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testing_cosmetics_on_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate


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frogs, and animals not yet weaned are not included in the figures in the United States; one estimate of mice and

rats used in the US alone in 2001 was 80 million.[3][4] Most animals areeuthanizedafter being used in an

experiment.[5]Sources of laboratory animalsvary between countries and species; most animals are purpose-bred,

while others are caught in the wild or supplied by dealers who obtain them from auctions andpounds.[6][7][8]

Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the BritishRoyal Society, argue that virtually every

medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way,[9]with the Institute for

Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S.National Academy of Sciencesarguing that even sophisticated

computers are unable to model interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the

environment, making animal research necessary in many areas.[10]Animal rights, and some animal welfare,

organizationssuch asPETA and BUAVquestion the legitimacy of it, arguing that it is cruel, poor scientific

practice, poorly regulated, that medical progress is being held back by misleading animal models, that some of

the tests are outdated, that it cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that

animals have an intrinsic right not to be used for experimentation.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

Contents

1 Definitions

2 History

o 2.1 Historical debate

3 Care and use of animals

o 3.1 Regulations

o 3.2 Numbers

o 3.3 Species

3.3.1 Invertebrates

3.3.2 Vertebrates

3.3.2.1 Cats and dogs

o 3.4 Sources

o 3.5 Pain and suffering

o 3.6 Euthanasia

4 Research classification

o 4.1 Pure research

o 4.2 Applied research

4.2.1 Xenotransplantation

o 4.3 Toxicology testing

4.3.1 Cosmetics testing

o 4.4 Drug testing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone26-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_animal_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_animal_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_shelterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_shelterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Gillham-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-TheRoyalSociety-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-TheRoyalSociety-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty_to_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-croce-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-croce-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Definitionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Historical_debatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Care_and_use_of_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Regulationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Numbershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Vertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Cats_and_dogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Pain_and_sufferinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Research_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Pure_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Toxicology_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Cosmetics_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Drug_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone26-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_animal_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_shelterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Gillham-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-TheRoyalSociety-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty_to_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-croce-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Definitionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Historical_debatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Care_and_use_of_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Regulationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Numbershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Invertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Vertebrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Cats_and_dogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Pain_and_sufferinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Euthanasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Research_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Pure_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Xenotransplantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Toxicology_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Cosmetics_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Drug_testing


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o 4.5 Education, breeding, and defense

5 Ethics

o 5.1 Viewpoints

o 5.2 Threats to researchers

6 Alternatives to animal testing

7 See also

8 References

9 Bibliography

10 Further reading

Definitions

The terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, andvivisectionhave

similardenotationsbut different connotations. Literally, "vivisection" means the "cutting up" of a living animal,

and historically referred only to experiments that involved the dissection of live animals. The term is

occasionally used to refer pejoratively to any experiment using living animals; for example, the Encyclopdia

Britannica defines "vivisection" as: "Operation on a living animal for experimental rather than healing purposes;

more broadly, all experimentation on live animals",[11][17][18]although dictionaries point out that the broader

definition is "used only by people who are opposed to such work".[19] The word has a negative connotation,

implying torture, suffering, and death.[5]The word "vivisection" is preferred by those opposed to this research,

whereas scientists typically use the term "animal experimentation".[20][21]

History

Main article:History of animal testing

An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump, from 1768, byJoseph Wright

The earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of theGreeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries

BCE.AristotleandErasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals.[22]Galen, a

physician in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known as the "father of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Education.2C_breeding.2C_and_defensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Viewpointshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Threats_to_researchershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Alternatives_to_animal_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Bibliographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-croce-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_animal_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pump_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby,_1768.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pump_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby,_1768.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Education.2C_breeding.2C_and_defensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Viewpointshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Threats_to_researchershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Alternatives_to_animal_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Bibliographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-croce-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone22-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_animal_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_Bird_in_an_Air_Pumphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome


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vivisection."[23]Avenzoar, anArabic physicianin 12th-centuryMoorish Spainwho also practiced dissection,

introduced animal testing as an experimental method of testing surgical procedures before applying them to

human patients.[24][25]

Animals have been used repeatedly through the history of biomedical research. The founders, in 1831, of

the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the animals both while they were

alive and when they were dead.[26] In the 1880s, Louis Pasteurconvincingly demonstrated the germ theoryof

medicine by inducing anthraxin sheep.[27]In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlovfamously used dogs to describeclassical

conditioning.[28]Insulinwas first isolated from dogs in 1922, and revolutionized the treatment ofdiabetes.[29]On

November 3, 1957, aSoviet dog,Laika, became the first of manyanimals to orbit the earth. In the 1970s,

antibiotic treatments and vaccines forleprosy were developed using armadillos,[30] then given to humans.[31]The

ability of humans to change thegeneticsof animals took a large step forwards in 1974 whenRudolf Jaenischwas

able to produce the first transgenic mammal, by integrating DNA from theSV40 virus into the genome of mice.

[32] This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996,Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to

beclonedfrom an adult cell.[33]

Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century. In the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more

relaxed. For example, in the U.S., the government could only ban a drug after a company had been prosecuted

for selling products that harmed customers. However, in response to the Elixir Sulfanilamide disasterof 1937 in

which the eponymous drug killed more than 100 users, the U.S. congress passed laws that required safety testing

of drugs on animals before they could be marketed. Other countries enacted similar legislation.[34]In the 1960s, in

reaction to the Thalidomidetragedy, further laws were passed requiring safety testing on pregnant animals before

a drug can be sold.[35]

Historical debate
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org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Jaenischhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SV40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_the_sheephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(genetics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Wilmut-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elixir_Sulfanilamide_disasterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalidomidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Burkholz-35


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Claude Bernard, regarded as the "prince of vivisectors"[36] argued that experiments on animals are "entirely conclusive for the

toxicology and hygiene of man".[37]

As the experimentation on animals increased, especially the practice of vivisection, so did criticism and

controversy. In 1655, the advocate ofGalenicphysiology Edmund O'Meara said that "the miserable torture of

vivisection places the body in an unnatural state."[38][39] O'Meara and others argued that animal physiology could

be affected by pain during vivisection, rendering results unreliable. There were also objections on

anethicalbasis, contending that the benefit to humans did not justify the harm to animals.[39] Early objections to

animal testing also came from another angle many people believed that animals were inferior to humans and

so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans. [39]

On the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary

to advance medical and biological knowledge. Claude Bernard, known as the "prince of vivisectors"[36]and the

father of physiologywhose wife, Marie Franoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in

1883[40]famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be

reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen".[41] Arguing that "experiments on animals ... are

entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of these substances are the same on man

as on animals, save for differences in degree," [37]Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the

standardscientific method.[42]

In 1896, the physiologist and physician Dr. Walter B. Cannonsaid "The antivivisectionists are the second of the

two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime,

but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of crime.' "[43]These divisions

between pro- and anti- animal testing groups first came to public attention during thebrown dog affairin the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Croce11-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_O'Mearahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Ryder54-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Croce11-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Croce11-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-TelegraphNov2003-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-LaFollette-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Cannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Cannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dog_affairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dog_affairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_Bernard_5.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_Bernard_5.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Croce11-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_O'Mearahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Ryder54-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-ANZCCART-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Croce11-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-TelegraphNov2003-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Bernard-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-LaFollette-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Cannonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dog_affair


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early 1900s, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police over a memorial to a

vivisected dog.[44]

One ofPavlov's dogs with asaliva-catchcontainer and tube surgically implanted in his muzzle, Pavlov Museum, 2005

In 1822, the first animal protection lawwas enacted in the British parliament, followed by theCruelty to Animals

Act (1876), the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing. The legislation was promoted byCharles

Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankesterin March 1871: "You ask about my opinion on vivisection. I quite agree

that it is justifiable for real investigations on physiology; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is

a subject which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another word about it, else I shall not sleep to-

night."[45][46] Opposition to the use of animals in medical research first arose in the United States during the 1860s,

whenHenry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals(ASPCA), with

America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS),

founded in 1883. Antivivisectionists of the era generally believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of

civilization, and vivisection was cruel. However, in the USA the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in

every legislature, overwhelmed by the superior organization and influence of the medical community. Overall,

this movement had little legislative success until the passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act, in 1966. [47]

Care and use of animals

See also:Animal testing regulations,Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, andAnimals (Scientific

Procedures) Act 1986

Regulations

The regulations that apply to animals in laboratories vary across species. In the U.S., under the provisions of

the Animal Welfare Actand the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide), published by

the National Academy of Sciences, any procedure can be performed on an animal if it can be successfully argued

that it is scientifically justified. In general, researchers are required to consult with the institution's veterinarian

and itsInstitutional Animal Care and Use Committee(IACUC), which every research facility is obliged to

maintain.[48] The IACUC must ensure that alternatives, including non-animal alternatives, have been considered,

that the experiments are not unnecessarily duplicative, and that pain relief is given unless it would interfere with

the study. Larry Carbone, a laboratory animal veterinarian, writes that, in his experience, IACUCs take their
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work very seriously regardless of the species involved, though the use ofnon-human primatesalways raises what

he calls a "red flag of special concern."[49] A study published in Science magazine in July 2001 confirmed the low

reliability of IACUC reviews of animal experiments. Funded by the National Science Foundation, the three-year

study found that animal-use committees that do not know the specifics of the university and personnel do not

make the same approval decisions as those made by animal-use committees that do know the university and

personnel. Specifically, blinded committees more often ask for more information rather than approving studies.

[50]

The IACUCs regulate all vertebrates in testing at institutions receiving federal funds in the USA. Although the

provisions of the Animal Welfare Act do not include purpose-bred rodents and birds, these species are equally

regulated under Public Health Service policies that govern the IACUCs.[51][52]Animal Welfare Act regulations are

enforced by the USDA, whereas Public Health Service regulations are enforced by OLAW and in many cases by

AAALAC.

Scientists in India are protesting a recent guideline issued by the University Grants Commission to ban the use of

live animals in universities and laboratories. [53]

Numbers

Types ofvertebratesused in animal testing in Europe in 2005: a total of 12.1 million animals were used.[54]

Accurate global figures for animal testing are difficult to obtain. TheBritish Union for the Abolition of

Vivisection (BUAV) estimates that 100 million vertebrates are experimented on around the world every year,

1011 million of them in the European Union.[18]The Nuffield Council on Bioethics reports that global annual

estimates range from 50 to 100 million animals. None of the figures include invertebrates such as shrimp and

fruit flies.[55]Animals bred for research then killed as surplus, animals used for breeding purposes, and animals

not yet weaned are also not included in the figures.[3]

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total number of animals used in that country in

2005 was almost 1.2 million,[56]but this does not include rats and mice, which make up about 90% of research

animals.[57][58]In 1995, researchers at Tufts University Center for Animals and Public Policy estimated that 1421
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-human_primateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-human_primateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-EU2005-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-EU2005-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-nuffield45-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-nuffield45-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-nuffield45-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone26-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-USDA2006-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-USDA2006-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-USDA2006-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Trull-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Trull-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Types_of_vertebrates_v2en.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Types_of_vertebrates_v2en.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-human_primateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-EU2005-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Union_for_the_Abolition_of_Vivisectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-buavfaq-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-nuffield45-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Carbone26-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-USDA2006-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Trull-58


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million animals were used in American laboratories in 1992, a reduction from a high of 50 million used in 1970.

[59] In 1986, the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment reported that estimates of the animals used in

the U.S. range from 10 million to upwards of 100 million each year, and that their own best estimate was at least

17 million to 22 million.[60]

In the UK, Home Office figures show that 3.2 million procedures were carried out in 2007, a rise of 189,500

since the previous year. Four thousand procedures used non-human primates, down 240 from 2006. [61]A

"procedure" refers to an experiment that might last minutes, several months, or years. Most animals are used in

only one procedure: animals either die because of the experiment or are euthanized afterwards. [55]

Species

Invertebrates

Main article:Animal testing on invertebrates

See also:Pain in invertebrates

Fruit fliesare commonly used.

Although many more invertebrates than vertebrates are used, these experiments are largely unregulated by law.

The most used invertebrate species areDrosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly, andCaenorhabditis elegans,

anematodeworm. In the case ofC. elegans, the worm's body is completely transparent and the precise lineage of

all the organism's cells is known, [62] while studies in the flyD. melanogastercan use an amazing array of genetic

tools.[63] These animals offer great advantages over vertebrates, including their short life cycle and the ease with

which large numbers may be studied, with thousands of flies or nematodes fitting into a single room. However,

the lack of an adaptiveimmune systemand their simple organs prevent worms from being used in particular

aspects of medical research such as vaccine development.[64]Similarly, the fruit fly immune system differs

greatly from that of humans,[65]and diseases in insects can be different from diseases in vertebrates;

[66] however, fruit fliesand waxwormscan be useful in certain situations to identify novel virulence factors or

pharmacologically active compounds.[67][68][69]

Vertebrates
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Further information:Animal testing on frogs,Animal testing on rabbits,Animal testing on rodents,Draize

test, andMedian lethal dose

Enos the space chimp before insertion into the Mercury-Atlas 5 capsule in 1961

This rat is being deprived of restful sleep using a single platform ("flower pot") technique. The water is within 1 cm of the

small flower pot bottom platform where the rat sits. At the onset of sleep, the rat would either fall into the water only to

clamber back to the pot to avoid drowning, or its nosewould become submerged into the watershockingit back to an

awakened state.

In the U.S., the numbers of rats and mice used is estimated at 20 million a year. [58] Other rodents commonly used

are guinea pigs, hamsters, and gerbils. Mice are the most commonly used vertebrate species because of their size,

low cost, ease of handling, and fast reproduction rate.[70]Mice are widely considered to be the best model

ofinherited human disease and share 99% of theirgeneswith humans.[70]With the advent ofgenetic

engineeringtechnology, genetically modified mice can be generated to order and can provide models for a range

of human diseases.[70]Rats are also widely used for physiology, toxicology and cancer research, but genetic

manipulation is much harder in rats than in mice, which limits the use of these rodents in basic science. [71]

Nearly 200,000 fish and 20,000 amphibians were used in the UK in 2004.[72]The main species used is the

zebrafish,Danio rerio, which are translucent during their embryonic stage, and the African clawed

frog,Xenopus laevis. Over 20,000 rabbits were used for animal testing in the UK in 2004. [72]Albinorabbits are

used in eye irritancy tests (Draize test) because rabbits have less tear flow than other animals, and the lack of eye

pigment in albinos make the effects easier to visualize.[72]Rabbits are also frequently used for the production of

polyclonal antibodies.
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In the European Union, animal sources are governed by Council Directive 86/609/EEC, which requires lab

animals to be specially bred, unless the animal has been lawfully imported and is not a wild animal or a stray.

The latter requirement may also be exempted by special arrangement. [94] In the UK, most animals used in

experiments are bred for the purpose under the 1988 Animal Protection Act, but wild-caught primates may be

used if exceptional and specific justification can be established.[95][96] The United States also allows the use of

wild-caught primates; between 1995 and 1999, 1,580 wild baboons were imported into the U.S. Over half the

primates imported between 1995 and 2000 were handled byCharles River Laboratories, or byCovance, which is

the single largest importer of primates into the U.S.[97]

Pain and suffering

Further information:Animal cognition,Pain in animals, andPain in invertebrates

Prior to dissection for educational purposes, chloroform was administered to this common sand frogto induceanesthesiaand

death.

The extent to which animal testing causespainand suffering, and the capacity of animals to experience and

comprehend them, is the subject of much debate.[98][99]

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in 2006 about 670,000 animals (57%) (not including rats,

mice, birds, or invertebrates) were used in procedures that did not include more than momentary pain or distress.

About 420,000 (36%) were used in procedures in which pain or distress was relieved by anesthesia, while 84,000

(7%) were used in studies that would cause pain or distress that would not be relieved.[56]

In the UK, research projects are classified as mild, moderate, and substantial in terms of the suffering the

researchers conducting the study say they may cause; a fourth category of "unclassified" means the animal

wasanesthetized and killed without recoveringconsciousness, according to the researchers. In December 2001,

1,296 (39%) of project licenses in force were classified as mild, 1,811 (55%) as moderate, 63 (2%) as substantial,
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and 139 (4%) as unclassified.[100] There have, however, been suggestions of systemic underestimation of

procedure severity.[101]

The idea that animals might not feel pain as human beings feel it traces back to the 17th-century French

philosopher, Ren Descartes, who argued that animals do not experience pain and suffering because they

lackconsciousness.[55][102]Bernard RollinofColorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal

laws regulating pain relief for animals, [103]writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether

animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore

animal pain.[104] In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that

animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain.

[104] Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of

the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious

thoughts and feelings has strong support,[105]some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states

can be determined.[55][106] The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering

is also unclear.[107][108]

The defining text on animal welfare regulation, "Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals" defines the

parameters that govern animal testing in the USA. It states "The ability to experience and respond to pain is

widespread in the animal kingdom...Pain is a stressor and, if not relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of

stress and distress in animals."[109] The Guide states that the ability to recognize the symptoms of pain in different

species is vital in efficiently applying pain relief and that it is essential for the people caring for and using

animals to be entirely familiar with these symptoms. On the subject of analgesics used to relieve pain, the Guide

states "The selection of the most appropriate analgesic or anesthetic should reflect professional judgment as to

which best meets clinical and humane requirements without compromising the scientific aspects of the research

protocol". Accordingly, all issues of animal pain and distress, and their potential treatment with analgesia and

anesthesia, are required regulatory issues in receiving animal protocol approval.

Euthanasia

Further information:EuthanasiaandAnimal euthanasia

Regulations require that scientists use as few animals as possible, especially for terminal experiments.

[110] However, while policy makers consider suffering to be the central issue and see animal euthanasia as a way

to reduce suffering, others, such as theRSPCA, argue that the lives of laboratory animals have intrinsic value.

[111] Regulations focus on whether particular methods causepain andsuffering, not whether their death is

undesirable in itself.[112]The animals are euthanized at the end of studies for sample collection orpost-mortem

examination; during studies if their pain or suffering falls into certain categories regarded as unacceptable, such

as depression, infection that is unresponsive to treatment, or the failure of large animals to eat for five days; [113] or

when they are unsuitable for breeding or unwanted for some other reason. [114]
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Methods of euthanizing laboratory animals are chosen to induce rapid unconsciousness and death without pain or

distress.[115] The methods that are preferred are those published by councils of veterinarians. The animal can be

made to inhale a gas, such ascarbon monoxideandcarbon dioxide, by being placed in a chamber, or by use of a

face mask, with or without prior sedation or anesthesia. Sedativesoranesthetics such asbarbiturates can be

givenintravenously, or inhalant anesthetics may be used. Amphibians and fish may be immersed in water

containing an anesthetic such astricaine. Physical methods are also used, with or without sedation or anesthesia

depending on the method. Recommended methods includedecapitation (beheading) for small rodents or

rabbits. Cervical dislocation (breaking the neck or spine) may be used for birds, mice, and immature rats and

rabbits.Maceration(grinding into small pieces) is used on 1 day old chicks. High-intensity

microwaveirradiationof the brain can preserve brain tissue and induce death in less than 1 second, but this is

currently only used on rodents.Captive bolts may be used, typically on dogs, ruminants, horses, pigs and rabbits.

It causes death by a concussion to the brain. Gunshot may be used, but only in cases where a penetrating captive

bolt may not be used. Some physical methods are only acceptable after the animal isunconscious.Electrocutionmay be used for cattle, sheep, swine, foxes, and mink after the animals are

unconscious, often by a prior electrical stun. Pithing(inserting a tool into the base of the brain) is usable on

animals already unconscious. Slow or rapid freezing, or inducing air embolism are acceptable only with prior

anesthesia to induce unconsciousness.[116]

Research classification

Pure research

Basic or pure research investigates how organisms behave, develop, and function. Those opposed to animal

testing object that pure research may have little or no practical purpose, but researchers argue that it may produce

unforeseen benefits, rendering the distinction between pure and applied researchresearch that has a specific

practical aimunclear.[117] Pure research uses larger numbers and a greater variety of animals than applied

research. Fruit flies, nematode worms, mice and rats together account for the vast majority, though small

numbers of other species are used, ranging fromsea slugsthrough to armadillos.[118]Examples of the types of

animals and experiments used in basic research include:

Studies onembryogenesisanddevelopmental biology. Mutants are created by adding transposonsinto

theirgenomes, or specific genes are deleted bygene targeting.[119][120]By studying the changes in

development these changes produce, scientists aim to understand both how organisms normally develop,

and what can go wrong in this process. These studies are particularly powerful since the basic controls of

development, such as the homeoboxgenes, have similar functions in organisms as diverse as fruit flies and

man.[121][122]
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Experiments into behavior, to understand how organisms detect and interact with each other and their

environment, in which fruit flies, worms, mice, and rats are all widely used. [123][124] Studies of brain function,

such as memory and social behavior, often use rats and birds.[125][126]For some species, behavioral research is

combined withenrichmentstrategies for animals in captivity because it allows them to engage in a wider

range of activities.[127]

Breeding experiments to study evolution andgenetics. Laboratory mice, flies, fish, and worms

areinbredthrough many generations to create strains with defined characteristics.[128]These provide animals

of a known genetic background, an important tool for genetic analyses. Larger mammals are rarely bred

specifically for such studies due to their slow rate of reproduction, though some scientists take advantage

ofinbred domesticated animals, such as dog or cattle breeds, forcomparative purposes. Scientists studying

how animals evolve use many animal species to see how variations in where and how an organism lives

(theirniche) produceadaptationsin their physiology andmorphology. As an example, sticklebacksare now

being used to study how many and which types of mutations are selected to produce adaptations in animals'

morphology during the evolution of new species. [129][130]

Applied research

Applied research aims to solve specific and practical problems. Compared to pure research, which is largely

academic in origin, applied research is usually carried out in thepharmaceutical industry, or by universities in

commercial partnerships. These may involve the use ofanimal modelsof diseases or conditions, which are often

discovered or generated by pure research programmes. In turn, such applied studies may be an early stage in

the drug discovery process. Examples include:

Genetic modification of animals to study disease. Transgenic animals have specific genes inserted,

modified or removed, to mimic specific conditions such assingle gene disorders, such as Huntington's

disease.[131] Other models mimic complex, multifactorial diseases with genetic components, such

asdiabetes,[132] or even transgenic mice that carry the same mutations that occur during the development

ofcancer.[133]These models allow investigations on how and why the disease develops, as well as providing

ways to develop and test new treatments.[134] The vast majority of these transgenic models of human disease

are lines of mice, the mammalian species in which genetic modification is most efficient.[70] Smaller

numbers of other animals are also used, including rats, pigs, sheep, fish, birds, and amphibians.[96]

Studies on models of naturally occurring disease and condition. Certain domestic and wild animals

have a natural propensity or predisposition for certain conditions that are also found in humans. Cats are

used as a model to develop immunodeficiency virus vaccines and to studyleukemia because their natural

predisposition toFIVand Feline leukemia virus.[135][136]Certain breeds of dog suffer from narcolepsy making
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-124http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-127http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticklebackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticklebackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-130http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_discoveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_modificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_gene_disordershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_gene_disordershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-131http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-132http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-133http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-133http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-134http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Rosenthal-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-HOStats-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_leukemia_virushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_leukemia_virushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-135http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-136http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-136http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcolepsyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-123http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-124http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-126http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-127http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-128http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_genomicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticklebackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-129http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-130http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_discoveryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_modificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_gene_disordershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington's_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-131http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-132http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-133http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-134http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-Rosenthal-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing#cite_note-HOStats-96http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_leukemia_virushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w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them the major model used to study the human condition. Armadillosand humans are among only a few

animal species that naturally suffer fromleprosy; as the bacteria responsible for this disease cannot yet be

grown in culture, armadillos are the primary source ofbacilli used in leprosy vaccines.[118]

Studies on induced animal models of human diseases. Here, an animal is treated so that it

developspathologyand symptoms that resemble a human disease. Examples include restricting blood flow

to the brain to inducestroke, or givingneurotoxinsthat cause damage similar to that seen in Parkinson's

disease.[137] Such studies can be difficult to interpret, and it is argued that they are not always comparable to

human diseases.[138] For example, although such models are now widely used to study Parkinson's disease,

the British anti-vivisection interest group BUAV argues that these models only superficially resemble the

disease symptoms, without the same time course or cellular pathology.[139] In contrast, scientists assessing

the usefulness of animal models of Parkinson's disease, as well as the medical research charity The

Parkinson's Appeal, state that these models were invaluable and that they led to improved surgical

treatments such aspallidotomy, new drug treatments such as levodopa, and laterdeep brain stimulation.[81]

[137][140]

Animal testing has also included the use ofplacebotesting. In these cases animals are treated with a

substance that produces no pharmacological effect, but is administered in order to determine any biological

alterations due to the experience of a substance being administered, and the results are compared with those

obtained with an active compound.

Xenotransplantation

Main article:Xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation research involves transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to

overcome the shortage of human organs for use in organ transplants.[141]Current research involves using primates

as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' immune

responseagainst the pig tissue.[142]Although transplant rejectionrem

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