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AN EXAMINATION OF JOB SATISFACTION AND ITS RELATION TOMOTIVATION NEEDS AND SOME DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES INTWO DIFFERENT CULTURES (SAUDI ARABIA AND THE UK)

PHD THESIS

FAHAD ALNOEIM

NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY203 02872 6

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Schoolof ManagementFaculty of law, Environmental and Social SciencesUniversity of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne

November 2002


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DEDICATEDTO

MY MOTHERFOR HER LOVE AND AFFECTION THROUGHOUT MY LIFE

MAY SHE RESTIN PEACE


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LIST OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .............................................................................. IV

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................... V

DECLARATION ....................................................................... xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................ XIITABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................. xillLIST OF TABLES ..................................................................... xixLIST OF FIGURES .................................................................... XXIII


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ABSTRACT

This research considers ob satisfaction in two different cultures using a quantitative perspective.Questionnaires were used to collect the data for this study. The questionnaire has four parts: ajob satisfaction scaledeveloped by the researcher specifically for this study, the consequencesofthe level of job satisfaction part developed by the researcher,Manifest Need Questionnaire(MNQ), and the demographic part developed by the researcher.The subjects of this study were406 middle managersfrom private organisations in Saudi Arabia, and 154middle managers fromprivate organisations in the North East region, England, UK. This thesis explores job satisfactionand its relation to the satisfaction with six job facets, satisfaction with co-worker, work itself,promotion, pay, supervision, and recognition. The six job facetswere also examined in relationto the satisfaction with somevariables associated with them. This thesis also examines therelationship between ob satisfaction and motivation needsand some demographic variables.Significant positive relationships between the overall job satisfaction and the satisfaction withthese ob facets were hypothesized; and also significant positive relationships between obsatisfaction and the four motivation needs(need for achievement, need for affiliation, need fordominance, and need for autonomy) were hypothesized in this study.Factoranalysisgaveus similar structure n the two samples.Thetwo setsof factorscontainexactlythe same tems,suggestinghatusingthe items in this survey,managersn the twocountriesconceptualiseob satisfactioncomponentsn the sameway. T-testsresultssuggesthatthereare statistically significant differencesn theaveragesatisfactionwith co-worker,workitself, promotion,and supervisionbetweenhe two samples,and no significantdifferences n theaverage atisfactionwith pay,recognition,and overall ob satisfactionwerefound between hetwo samples.The findings of this studysupport henotion that the level of job satisfactionhasan effect on theemployee'sattitude owards he ob and heorganisation. t wasfoundthat satisfactionwith thejob accompaniedavourableconsequencesnd vice versa n the two samples. obsatisfactionwasfoundto havevery weakcorrelationswith the four motivation needsn the two samples.Positivesignificantmoderatelyweakrelationshipsbetweenob satisfactionand age, annualsalary,working in the sameorganisation,education,and number of dependants;and a very weakrelation with the lengthof service n the Saudisample. n theUK sample,very weak correlationwerefoundbetweenob satisfactionand hedemographic ariables;correlationwith educationwasa significant but negativeone andcorrelationwith number of dependantswas negativealsoPearsonProduct-MomentCorrelation estwasemployed o test the researchhypothesis.Significantpositiverelationshipsbetweenhe overall ob satisfactionand he satisfactionwiththe six job facetswerefound,andhypothesesregarding he relationshipbetween he fourmotivation needsand ob satisfactionwererejected.


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. IntroductionEconomicgrowth anddevelopmentssuesposemajor problems o developingcountries(Al-salamah,1994).Accordingto Al-salamah,one of themajor causes f economicbackwardnessndevelopingcountriesas a whole and n SaudiArabia in particular s not a lack of resources rspecific geographicaldisadvantage,ut the lack of well qualified and experiencedmanagers.Accordingto Alqonabet(1998), here s adesperateneed n SaudiArabia to developeffectivemanagementn bothprivateandpublic sectorsof theeconomy.He argued hat industrial sationand economicdevelopmentof SaudiArabiadependson theexistenceof efficient anddedicatedmanagerswho are motivated o work hardto achieve he goalsof theorganisation.Oneof the greatestproblems acingmanagementn developingcountriessuch asSaudiArabia ishow to motivateandsupport heir work forces n orderto generatemaximumindividual andcollectiveefforts (MachungwaandSchmitt, 1983;At-Twaijri et al, 1995).Problemsof motivationand ob satisfactionhavecontinued o plaguemanydevelopingcountries ike Saudi Arabia, andareevidentfrom thevery low productivity, inefficiencies,and ack of will to work hardon thepartof thework force of thesenations MachungwaandSchmitt, 1983).Theissuesof motivation and ob satisfactionn SaudiArabiahavebeen he subjectsof acontroversy.Managementexpertsand scholarsn SaudiArabiaaredivided on this issue.Proponents f one schoolof thoughtargue hat Saudiemployeesare mainly motivatedby theuseof monetary ewards e.g. Al-nimr, 1993).Theorists rom theother schoolargue hat Saudiemployees anbemotivated owardshigher ob satisfactionby usingnon-monetary ewardssuchasgiving employeesmoreautonomy,power, and responsibility(e.g.At-Twaijri et al, 1995).Thesescholarshavestated hatmotivation of employees, itherby theuse of monetaryor non-monetarymeans,playsanimportantrole in determiningemployees'ob satisfaction.Researchersn the developedcountrieshaveshown hat there s a relationshipbetweenmotivationneedsand ob satisfaction e.g.,ParkerandChusmir,1991; Herzberg, 1987;Herzberget al., 1959;Porter,1961). n addition,otherfactorscanalsoplay an mportantrole in determiningemployeejob satisfaction.Overall ob satisfactiondependson a largenumber of interactingvariables.Family size s a cultural factor thatmayhave nfluenceon an employee'sob satisfaction Locke,1976).Otherfactorssuchas age,educationand ncomecanalsoaffect an individual's jobsatisfaction Clark et al, 1996,Gruneberg,1981).This study s anattempt o improveour understanding f job satisfactionand ts relationshipwithmotivation needsandsomedemographicactors.Datafor this studywill becollectedfrom a Saudisample,wheremodem ndustrialorganisationsare relatively new andthe field appears ipe forstudy,andfrom aUK sample o useasa benchmark for comparison. -Thepurposeof this research,herefore, s to explore actors hat affect ob satisfaction,measurethe level of satisfactionwith these actorsand he overall ob satisfaction,and examine he


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2. Research Objectives1. Examine heextent of theoverall ob satisfaction or managersn the SaudiandUKsamples.2. Examine he level of satisfactionwith: work group,work itself, promotion,pay,

supervision,andrecognitionand heir relationto theoverall ob satisfaction n the twosamples.3. Exploretherelationshipof job satisfactionandmotivation needsn the two samples.4. Exploretherelationshipof job satisfactionandsomedemographicvariables n the twosamples.3. Research QuestionsThis researchwill try to answer he following questions:I. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith work groupbetween he

SaudiandUK managers?2. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith work itself between heSaudiandUK managers?3. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith promotionbetween heSaudiandUK managers?4. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith paybetween he SaudiandUK managers?5. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith supervisionbetween heSaudiandUK managers?6. Is therea significantdifference n theaveragesatisfactionwith recognitionbetween heSaudiandUK managers?7. Is therea significantdifference n theaverageof overall ob satisfactionbetween he SaudiandUK managers?8. Does ob satisfactionhavea similar relationshipwith someconsequencesf the level ofjob satisfaction n thetwo samples?9. To what extentdo age,education,salary, engthof service,and number of dependantscontribute o job satisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples?10. To what extentdo the four motivationalneedscontribute o job satisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples?11.Are thereanydifferences n the importanceof job factors or managersn the two differentcultures?12.Is therea significant difference n theneed or achievement etween he SaudiandUKmanagers?13. Is therea significant difference n theneed or affiliation between he SaudiandUKmanagers?14.Is therea significant difference n theneed or autonomybetween he SaudiandUKmanagers?15.Is therea significant difference n theneed or dominancebetween he SaudiandUK

managers?


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4. Research HypothesesTheresearchhypotheseswill bethebasis or thecollectionandanalysisof data n this study. Thestudyhassix hypotheses:

I. Therewill bea significantpositive relationshipbetweenherespondent'ssatisfactionwiththework group and hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.2. Therewill bea significantpositiverelationshipbetweenherespondent'ssatisfactionwithwork itself and hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.3. Therewill bea significant positiverelationshipbetweenherespondent'ssatisfactionwithpromotionand hewhole ob satisfactionn thetwo samples.4. Therewill bea significant positiverelationshipbetweenherespondent'ssatisfactionwithpayand hewhole ob satisfactionn thetwo samples.5. Therewill bea significant positiverelationshipbetweenherespondent'ssatisfactionwithsupervisionand hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.6. Therewill bea significantpositive relationshipbetween herespondent'ssatisfactionwithrecognitionand hewhole ob satisfactionn thetwo samples.7. Therewill bea significantpositive relationshipbetweenhe need or achievementand obsatisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.8. Therewill bea significantpositive relationshipbetweenheneed or affiliation and obsatisfactionamongmanagersn thetwo samples.9. Therewill bea significant positive relationshipbetween heneed or autonomyand obsatisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.10. Therewill bea significant positive relationshipbetweenheneed or dominanceand obsatisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.

5. ResearchMethodology

5.1 ResearchDesignThis study will follow a cross-sectional urvey.Accordingto Babbie (1998), a cross-sectionaldesign s themost appropriateand hemostfrequentlyused esearchdesign.The surveymethod

soneof themost importantdatacollection methodsn the social sciences,and as such, t is usedextensively o collect information on numeroussubjectsof research NachmiasandNachmias,1996). f theresearcher'saim is a singletime description, henacross-sectional urvey s themostappropriate.5.2 Data Collection InstrumentThemail surveywasused o collectdata rom the assigned ample.Babbie (1998)stated hatsurveyresearchs thebestpossiblechoiceof researchnstrumentwhenattempting o collectmeaningfuldataon populations oo large o observedirectly, andmaybeutilised effectively fordescriptive,explanatory,or exploratorypurposes.Dillman (1978)stateshat surveysare goodvehicles or measuring he attitudeandorientationsof a largesample.The mail surveyhasbeenthemost commonlyutilised form of respondent elf-administered uestionnaire Dillman, 1978;


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5.3 The employed scalesThequestionnaire as our parts:(1) the ob satisfactionpart, (2) the consequences f the level ofjob satisfaction, 3) motivation needspart, and(4) thedemographicpart. In thenext section,weshedsome ight on eachpart.

Part (1): The job satisfaction part:This part is intended o measureob satisfactionandfactorsassociatedwith it. The questionnairethatwasused n this studyto measureob satisfactionwas constructedanddevelopedespeciallyfor this researchmaking useof manybooks,articles, and heseselevant o job satisfaction.This partof the questionnaire omprised32 itemsaimed o measureob satisfaction.A six pointsLikert scalewas used.Respondents ere asked o rate heir level of satisfactionon a scalestartingfrom very satisfied(1) throughrathersatisfied,satisfied, atherdissatisfied,dissatisfied, o verydissatisfied 6).Part (2): The consequences of the level of job satisfaction partThis part wasdevelopedby theresearchero testsomeof theconsequences f the level of jobsatisfaction.Four statementswere ncluded n this part.Respondents ere asked o record heirresponses n a six point Likert scale anging rom I=stronglydisagreeo 6=stronglyagree or thefirst threestatements, nd ranging rom 1=stronglyagree o 6=strongly disagreeor the fourthstatement.Part (3): The motivation needspartTheManifestNeedsQuestionnaireMNQ),developed y Steers ndBraunstein1976),wasusedin thispart o elicit responsesnthestrength f motivationneeds.Part (4): The demographic partThedemographicpart wasdevelopedby theresearchero gather nformation about respondents'age,annualgrosssalary, engthof service n the current ob, lengthof service or the sameorganisation, he level of formal education,and he numberof dependants.5.4 Researchpopulation and sampleThepopulationfor this studyconsistsof managers mployed n organisationsn theprivate sectorin theNorth Eastregionof theUK and n theprivate sector n SaudiArabia. The sampling ramefor theUK samplewill beD&B BusinessRegister,North EastVolume, andfor the Saudisamplewill bethe"A-Z" OrganisationalDirectory. Managerswereselectedasthe subjectsof theempirical researchdue o their organisations.Total questionnaires ent n theUK were 1000,158returned,154questionnaireswereusablegiving a responseate of 15.4%.Total of questionnaires ent n SaudiArabia were800,415questionnaireswerecollected;of them406wereusablegiving a responseate of about51%.Therefore, he resultof dataanalysispresentedn this study s basedon 406 responsesrom Saudi


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6. Data analysisThedata or this researchwere analysedusingthe StatisticalPackageor Social Science SPSS).Theanalysiswasbasedon two samples:he Saudisample N = 406);and heUK sample N =154),which will beusedas a benchmark for comparison.During the courseof dataentry,twocheckswere made o verify the accuracyof thedataentry, one n the middle of dataentry, and hesecondat the end.No non-response ias,at the0.05 level of significant, was found in the twosamplesasassessedy two-sample -testsof themeasuredmeanson severalvariables suchas age,annualsalary,education, engthof services,and numberof dependents.A numberof criteria are proposedby TabachnickandFidell (1989)to selectan appropriatestatistical echnique, wo of which are heappropriateness f the technique o the researchquestions,and he characteristics f data.Accordingly, different statistical echniqueswereused ntheanalysisbasedon their relevanceo theresearchobjectives,questionsandhypotheses.Amongthe techniqueshathave beenusedwhere applicablearefrequenciesanalysis, actor analysis, -test,PearsonProduct-MomentCorrelation,andFisher'sZ-transformation.

7. Results and rindingsExploratoryfactor analysiswas utilised in this researcho search or structureamongvariables.Factoranalysisgaveus similar structuren the two samples.Thetwo setsof factorscontainexactlythe sametems,suggestinghatusingthe items in this survey,managersn the twocountriesconceptualiseob satisfactioncomponentsn the sameway. A Cronbach eliability testwas conducted;all reliability coefficientswereover .60, which mean hat they are acceptable.Thisindicates hat themeasurement calesareacceptably eliable,and providessupport or thestatisticalanalysis.T-testsresults suggesthat thereare statistically significantdifferences n the averagesatisfactionwith co-worker, work itself, promotion,andsupervisionbetween he two samples.No significantdifferences n the averagesatisfactionwith pay, recognition, and overall ob satisfactionwerefound between he two samples.The indingsof thisstudysupporthenotion hat he evelof job satisfactionasan effectontheemployee's ttitudeowardshe ob and heorganisation.t was ound hatsatisfactionwith thejob accompaniedavourableconsequencesndvice versa. obsatisfaction as ound o havestrongpositivecorrelations ith thedisagreementof resigningromwork,disagreementfthinkingof findinganotherob, disagreementof hating o goto work,and heagreementf feelinghappyatworkin bothsamples.estsor significantdifferencesetweencorrelationsn the wosamples ereconducted. o differenceswere oundexcept orrelation etweenob satisfactionand hinkingof findinga ob outsideheorganisation.In the Saudisample,ob satisfactionwasfound to havesignificantbut weakcorrelationswith theneed or autonomyandneed or dominance;andno significantcorrelationwith the need orachievementandthe need or affiliation. In the UK sample,ob satisfactionhasno significantcorrelationwith all the four motivation needs.Tests or significant differencesbetweencorrelations n the two samples evealedno significantdifferencesbetween hem.


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relation with the length of service in the Saudi sample. In the UK sample, very weak correlationswere found between ob satisfaction and the demographic variables; correlation with educationwas a significant but negative one and correlation with number of dependantswas negative also.PearsonProduct-MomentCorrelation estwas employed o testtheresearchhypotheses.Significantpositive relationshipsbetweenheoverall ob satisfactionandthe satisfactionwiththesix ob facetswerefound,andhypothesesregarding herelationshipbetween he fourmotivationneedsand ob satisfactionwere rejected.

8. ConclusionThe research's hypotheses regarding job satisfaction relationship with the six job facets weresupported in this study. Significant correlations were found between the overall job satisfactionand the satisfaction with co-worker, work itself, promotion, pay, supervision and recognition inthe two samples. Although the same variables have significant correlations with the overall jobsatisfaction in the two samples, the tests for correlation differences show some significantdifferences. This led us to conclude that the samevariables have some influence on employees'job satisfaction in two different cultures, but with somedifferences in strength. Hypothesesregarding the relationship between the four motivation needs and ob satisfaction were rejected.

The level of satisfactionwith the ob hasan effect on theattitude andbehaviourof employeestowards heir obs and organisations. obsatisfactionwasfoundto accompanyavourableconsequencesnd vice versa.Themorehighly satisfiedan employees, themore likely hewillstay n his ob, have ewer absences ndfeel happierat work.Fromtheresults of the relationshipbetween heoverall ob satisfactionandthe four motivationneeds,one could conclude hat the four motivationneedsdid not havea major influenceon themanagers'jobsatisfactionsurveyedhis study.Differenceswere oundbetweenhe wosamplesn therelationshipetweenob satisfaction ndsome emographicvariables.Onecouldconcluderomtheseesultshatdemographicariablesmayhavedifferentnfluenceson ob satisfactionromonecultureo another.Although resultsof thePearsonProduct-MomentCorrelationTestexamining herelationshipbetweenob satisfactionandthe satisfactionwith the six job facets,andthe satisfactionwith eachjob facetandthe satisfactionwith thevariablesassociatedwith it showsomestrongcorrelationsamong hemin both samples,ests or significantdifferencesbetweencorrelationshowthat Saudiscoredhigher in someandUK scoredhigher in others.These esults eadoneto conclude hat thevariables hat havebeen nvestigatedn this studyhaveaffectedmanagers'ob satisfaction n thetwo different cultures,but with different strength.


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DECLARATION

No portion of thework referred o in this thesishasbeensubmitted n supportof an application oranotherdegreeor qualification at anyother university or other nstituteof learning.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report is doneas an academicexerciseo fulfil therequirementsor PhD thesissubmitted otheUniversity of Newcastle.Thecompletionof this thesishasonly beenpossiblewith thehelp andsupportof manypeopleandinstitutions.EventhoughI am solely responsibleor this study, herearemany contributionswhich I must acknowledge.I ammost gratefUl o my supervisorDr. JoanHarvey for guidance,encouragement, dvice, andsupportnot only academicallybut also sociallythroughout he durationof my PhD research.I am indebted o Dr. GeorgeErdos rom the PsychologyDepartment or his meaningfuladviceand comments,o King SaudUniversity, SaudiArabia, who provided a scholarship or my study,to Mr. Abdullah Alnaser, TheCultural Attach6,andthe Staff at the Saudi Cultural Bureau or theirhelp and support.My appreciations alsodue o Moira Dearden rom the Schoolof Managementwho alwaysgavehelp throughout hedurationof my study.Finally, I would like to expressmy sincere hanksanddeepestgratitude o my wife, HanaAlsogair, and my sonAbdullah for the love andsupport hey showed n the courseof this research.

FahadAlnoeim


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................................................1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................1.2 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................21.3 Significant of the Problem .................................................................................41.4 Theoretical Rational ..........................................................................................51.5 Research Objectives ...........................................................................................61.6 Research Questions...........................................................................................1.7 Research Hypotheses .........................................................................................71.8 Organisation of the Study .................................................................................CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................02.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................112.2 Overview .......................................................................................................... It2.3 Definition of Job Satisfaction.........................................................................22.4 Definition of Motivation .................................................................................32.5 Job Satisfaction Theories ............................................................................... 142.5.1 Maslow's Need Hierarchy ............................................................................................... 162.5.2 Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory .......................................................................... 172.5.3 Expectancy Theory .......................................................................................................... 192.5.4 Equity Theory .................................................................................................................. 202.5.5 Goal-Setting Theory ......................................................................................................... 212.5.6 Control Theory ................................................................................................................. 22

2.6 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Motivation .............................. 232.7 Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction ...................................................... 252.7.1Work Factors 6


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2.7.1.5 Satisfaction with Supervisor................................................................................................................... 292.7.1.6 Satisfaction with Recognition ................................................................................................................ 292.7.2 Personal Factors ............................................................................................................... 302.7.2.1 Age ......................................................................................................................................................... 302.7.2.2 Annual Gross Salary .............................................................................................................................. 312.7.2.3 Length of Service in Current Job and in Current Organisation .............................................................. 312.7.2.4 Education...............................................................................................................................................

322.7.2.5 Number of Dependents(family size) ..................................................................................................... 32

2.8 The Consequences of the Level of Job Satisfaction ..................................... 322.9 Measuring Job Satisfaction...........................................................................342.9.1The ob SatisfactionSurvey.............................................................................................52.9.2 TheJob Descriptive ndex.............................................................................................. 62.9.3 TheMinnesotaSatisfactionQuestionnaire MSQ)......................................................... 62.10 Job Satisfaction and Motivation Needs....................................................... 382.11 Managers as a Focal Point of Study ............................................................ 412.12 Summary ........................................................................................................ 43CHAPTER THREE: CULTURE ........................................................53.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................63.2 Definition of Culture .......................................................................................63.3 Differences in National Cultures ................................................................... 473.3.1Hofstede'sModel........................................................................................................83.3.1.1PowerDistance.......................................................................................................................................93.3.1.2 ndividualism-Collectivism....................................................................................................................03.3.1.3 Masculinity............................................................................................................................................13.3.1.4UncertaintyAvoidance...........................................................................................................................23.3.1.5 ConfucianDynamism.............................................................................................................................33.3.1.6 Comments oncerningHofstcde'sModel ..............................................................................................33.4 Organisations and Cultural Differences ....................................................... 543.4.1CultureandGroup Behaviour..........................................................................................53.4.2 CultureandSupervisionandLeadership.........................................................................53.4.3CultureandMotivation ....................................................................................................53.4.3.1Maslow's Need Hierarchy......................................................................................................................63.4.3.2McClelland's Three Motives..................................................................................................................83.4.3.3Herzberg'sTwo-FactorTheory..............................................................................................................83.4.3.4Motivation is Culture Bound..................................................................................................................93.4.4CultureandJobSatisfaction............................................................................................03.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 61


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CHAPTER FOUR: BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT SAUDIARABIA AND THE NORTH EAST REGION .................................624.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................634.2 Saudi Arabia .................................................................................................... 634.2.1 LocationandPopulation..................................................................................................34.2.2 Background o the SaudiPrivate Sector..........................................................................44.2.3.PrivatizationandEconomicReform...............................................................................54.2.4Saudizationn thePublic andPrivateSectors..................................................................64.2.5Manpowerand hePrivateSector....................................................................................74.3 The North East ................................................................................................ 694.3.1ReQionalProfile ...............................................................................................................9

4.3.2Labour ForceandLabourMarket....................................................................................04.4 Summary ..........................................................................................................71CHAPTER FIVE: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..............725.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................735.2 ResearchDesign

..............................................................................................5

5.3 Data Collection Instrument ............................................................................755.4 Translating the Questionnaire .......................................................................75.5 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................85.6 The Development of the Questionnaire ........................................................95.6.1Part 1):The ob satisfactionart.................................................................................95.6.1.1Questionsrelated o thesatisfactionwith work group..........................................................................825.6.1.2 uestionselatedothesatisfactionithworktself....................................................................835.6.1.3Questionsrelated o thesatisfactionwith promotion............................................................................835.6.1.4Questionrelated o thesatisfactionwith pay..........................................................................................35.6.1.5Questionsrelated o the satisfactionwith supervision............................................................................45.6.1.6Questionselated o the satisfactionwith recognition............................................................................45.6.2Part 2):Theconsequencesf the evelof ob satisfactionart.....................................855.6.3Part 3):Themotivationneeds art.............................................................................855.6.4Part 4):The demographicpart...................................................................................865.7 Population of the Study .................................................................................. 875.8 Sampling .......................................................................................................... 88


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5.11 Research Hypotheses ....................................................................................925.12 Statistical Analysis Technique ..................................................................... 935.13 Methodological Issues in Cross-Cultural Research ................................... 955.13.1 Equivalence ....................................................................................................................965.13.2 Bias ................................................................................................................................975.13.3 Sampling Adequacy .......................................................................................................985.13.4 Language and Translation Issues...................................................................................985.14 Summary ........................................................................................................98CHAPTER SIX: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND DATAREDUCTION .......................................................................................oo6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................1016.2 Response Rate ................................................................................................1016.3 Non-responseAssessment.............................................................................026.4 Descriptive Analysis of the Demographic Variables ................................. 1036.4.1Age.................................................................................................................................036.4.2Annual grosssalary........................................................................................................

046.4.3Lengthof serviceson currentob ...................................................................................046.4.4Numberof yearsworking for thecurrent organisation..................................................056.4.5Level of education..........................................................................................................056.4.6Numberof dependants...................................................................................................05

6.5 Descriptive Analysis of the Motivational Needs.........................................066.6 Factor Analysis .............................................................................................. 1086.6.1Rotationof Factors......................................................................................................096.6.1.1Samplingof variables...........................................................................................................................106.6.1.2Samplingof subjects............................................................................................................................6.6.1.3Samplesize..........................................................................................................................................6.6.1.4Subjectso variableratio......................................................................................................................6.6.2OtherCriteria .................................................................................................................6.7 Factor Analysis for the Saudi Sample ......................................................... 1126.7.1ObliqueRotation............................................................................................................136.7.2Interpretationof Factors.................................................................................................156.7.3OrthogonalRotation.......................................................................................................166.8 Factor Analysis for the UK Sample ............................................................. 1176.8.1ObliqueRotation............................................................................................................186.8.2Interpretationof Factors.................................................................................................19


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6.9 Comparing Results of the Two Samples.....................................................1216.10 Reliability Analysis .....................................................................................1216.11 Comparing the Overall Question with the Averages for each Job Facets.........000.0.........0.0000000000..so...0....0.. ............0000......0.. ....0...........0.0..01226.12 Summary ......................................................................................................124CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS OF THE STUDY ......................... 257.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................267.2 Job Satisfaction .............................................................................................1267.2.1 Satisfactionwith co-worker...........................................................................................267.2.2 Satisfactionwith work ...................................................................................................297.2.3 Satisfactionwith promotion...........................................................................................317.2.4Satisfactionwith pay......................................................................................................337.2.5 Satisfactionwith Supervision........................................................................................357.2.6 Satisfactionwith recognition.........................................................................................377.2.7Whole Satisfaction.........................................................................................................397.3 Consequencesof the Level Job Satisfaction ...............................................417.4Motivational Needs...........................................................................................................42

7.4.1Theneed or achievement......................................................................................................................437.4.2 Theneed or affiliation............................................................................................................................447.4.3Theneed or autonomy...........................................................................................................................457.4.4 Theneed or dominance..........................................................................................................................47

,,./7.5 Job Satisfaction and the Demographic Variables ...................................... 1487.6 Testing the Hypotheses ................................................................................. 1517.7 Summary ........................................................................................................56CHAPTER EIGHT: ............................................................................57DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FORFUTURE RESEARCH .......................................................................578.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1588.2 Factor Analysis .............................................................................................. 1588.3 Motivation Needsand Job Satisfaction.......................................................59


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8.5 Discussion of Job Satisfaction ...................................................................... 1628.5.1 Satisfactionwith work group.........................................................................................638.5.2 Satisfactionwith work itself ..........................................................................................648.5.3 Satisfactionwith promotion...........................................................................................658.5.4 Satisfactionwith pay......................................................................................................668.5.5 Satisfaction with supervision ......................................................................................... 1678.5.6 Satisfactionwith recognition.........................................................................................688.5.7 Overall job satisfaction ..................................................................................................1698.6 Job Satisfaction and Demographic Variables ............................................ 1728.7 Cross-Cultural Comparison in Job Satisfaction ........................................ 174

,-8.8 Conclusion ......................................................................................................175,,, 8.9 Limitations of the Study and Lessons to be learned .................................. 179

8.10 Recommendation for Management Practice ........................................... 181/ 8.11 Recommendations for Future Research ................................................... 182

8.12A Final Comment ........................................................................................83REFERENCES ....................................................................................184APPENDICES ......................................................................................03Appendix 1: English Questionnaire ..................................................................04Appendix 2: Arabic Questionnaire ...................................................................09Appendix 3: Letter from the Dean....................................................................14Appendix 4: Screeplot for the Saudi sample...................................................15Appendix 5: Scree plot for the UK sample ....................................................... 216Appendix 6: The factor matrix Saudi sample (Orthogonal Rotation) ........... 217Appendix 7: The factor matrix UK sample (Orthogonal Rotation) .............. 218Appendix 8: Mean, St. Deviation and inter-item correlation for JobSatisfaction Variables (Saudi sample) ............................................................... 219Appendix 9: Mean, St. Deviation and Inter-items Correlation for JobSatisfaction Variables (UK sample) 221


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LIST OF TABLES

Table4.1: GeneralStatisticsof theNorth East......................................... ..69Table 5.1: The age categories............................................................... 86Table 5.2: The annual gross salary categories............................................. 87Table 5.3: The lengthof services ategories.............................................. 87Table 5.4: The lengthof services ategories.............................................. 87Table 5.5:The level of formal education.................................................. 87

Table5.6: Numberof dependents.......................................................... 87Table 6.1:Age Distribution for the SaudiandUK Samples............................ 103Table 6.2: Annual grosssalarydistributionfor the SaudiandUK samples......... 104Table 6.3: SaudiandUK managers'engthof service n currentob ................. 104Table 6.4: SaudiandUK managers'engthof service n currentorganisation...... 105

Table 6.5:Level of educationdistribution for the SaudiandUK samples........... 105Table6.6: Numberof dependence istribution for the SaudiandUK samples..,...106Table 6.7: SaudiandUK samplesdistributionof thestrengthof need or achievement:frequenciesand percentages................................................................ 106Table6.8: SaudiandUK samplesdistributionof the strengthof need or affiliation: frequenciesandpercentages............................................................................... 107

Table 6.9: SaudiandUK samplesdistributionof the strengthof need or autonomy: requenciesandpercentages................................................................................ 107Table 6.10: SaudiandUK samplesdistribution of the strengthof need or dominance:frequenciesandpercentages................................................................. 107Table6.11: Summary nformation of the resultsof the extractionof componentalongwith KMOtestandBartlett's tests(Saudisample)...................................................... 113Table 6.12:The factor pattern matrix (Saudisample) all loading> 0.5)............... 114Table6.13: Factorsextracted or the Saudisampleand heir names..................... 117


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Table 6.14: Summary information of the results of the extraction of component along with KMOtest and Bartlett's tests (UK sample)............................................................ 118Table6.15:The factorpatternmatrix (UK sample) all loadings> 0.5).................. 119Table 6.16: Factorsextractedor theUK sampleand heir names......................... 121Table 6.17: The results of the reliability test for the Saudi sample......................... 122Table 6.18:overall questionsandaverages orrelations or the Saudisample............ 123Table 6.19:overall questionsand averages orrelations or theUK sample............... 123Table7.1: Satisfactionwith co-workers......................................................... 127Table7.2: MeansandStd. Deviations or the satisfactionwith co-worker................ 127Table 7.3T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith co-worker.............................. 127Table 7.4: Satisfactionwith co-worker correlationsand estfor significantdifferencesbetweencorrelations.......................................................................................... 129Table7.5: Satisfactionwith work................................................................. 129

Table7.6: MeansandStd. Deviationfor the satisfactionwith work......................... 130Table7.7:T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith work..................................... 130Table7.8: Satisfactionwith work correlationsand estfor significantdifferencesbetweencorrelations........................................................................................... 131Table7.9: Satisfactionwith promotion............................................................ 131Table7.10: MeansandStd.Deviation for the satisfactionwith promotion.................. 132Table7.11: T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith promotion.............................. 132Table7.12: Satisfactionwith promotioncorrelationsand estfor significant differencesbetweencorrelations............................................................................................ 133Table7.13:Satisfactionwith pay.................................................................. 133Table7.14:MeansandStd.Deviation for the satisfactionwith pay

...........................133

Table7.15: T-Test resultsbasedon satisfactionwith pay...................................... 134Table7.16: Satisfaction for differencesbetween


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Table 7.18:MeansandStd.Deviation or thesatisfactionwith supervision.............. 135Table 7.19:T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith supervision.......................... 136Table 7.20: Satisfaction with supervision correlations and test for significant differences betweencorrelations ......................................................................................... 137Table 7.21: Satisfaction with Recognition ...................................................... 137Table 7.22:MeansandStd. Deviation or thesatisfactionwith recognition.............. 137Table7.23:T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith recognition.......................... 138Table7.24:Satisfactionwith recognitioncorrelationsand estfor significantdifferencesbetweencorrelations.......................................................................................... 139Table 7.25:Whole satisfaction................................................................... 139Table7.26:MeansandStd. Deviation for the satisfactionwith thewhole obSatisfaction.......................................................................................... 139Table7.27:T-Testresultsbasedon satisfactionwith whole satisfaction................... 140Table7.28:Overall satisfactioncorrelationwith the six factors n the two samples......

140Table7.29:Test for significantdifferencesbetweencorrelations or consequencesf thelevelof job satisfaction........................................................................... 142Table7.30:Frequenciesandpercentagesf theneed or achievement..................... 143Table7.31:MeansandStd.deviations or theneed or achievement........................ 143Table7.32:T-testresultsbasedon theneed or achievement................................. 144Table7.33:Frequenciesandpercentagesor theneed or affiliation ........................ 144Table7.34:MeansandStd.deviations or theneed or affiliation ........................... 145Table7.35:T-testresultsbasedon theneed or affiliation .................................... 145Table7.36:Frequenciesandpercentagesor theneed or autonomy........................ 146Table7.37:MeansandStd.deviations or theneed or autonomy...........................

146Table7.38: T-testresultsbasedon theneed or autonomy.................................... 146Table7.39:Frequencies or or dominance


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Table 7.41: T-test results basedon the need for dominance................................... 148Table 7.42: Test for significant differences between correlations ............................ 148Table7.43: Testfor significantdifferencesbetweencorrelations............................ 148


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 7.1: Scatter of job satisfaction and age for the Saudi sample..................... 149FigUre7.2: Scatterofjob satisfactionand age or theUK sample......................... 150


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Chapter one: Introduction


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1.1 IntroductionEconomic growth and development issuespose major problems to developing countries (Al-salamah,1994).Accordingto Al-salamah,one of themajor causesof economicbackwardnessndevelopingcountriesasawhole and n SaudiArabia in particular, s not a lack of resourcesorspecific geographical disadvantage,but the lack of well qualified and experienced managers.

Managementplays a central ole in theeconomicand ndustrial growth of a nation.Managementexpertsandtheoristshave ndicated hateffective managements a critical element n bothnationaleconomicgrowth and hesuccess f organisations ndthatdevelopingeconomymustbeable o accumulate,etain, and usemanagerial esources ffectively and efficiently to achievedesiredndustrial andeconomicgrowth(Drucker, 1972;Alsenanee,1997;Alqonabet,1998).Researchersavealso ndicated hat there s a need or qualified andexperiencedmanagersndevelopingcountries,suchasSaudiArabia,to pilot economicdevelopmentand growth efforts(Alqonabet,1998).

Accordingto Alqonabet(1998), here s a desperateneed n SaudiArabia to developeffectivemanagementn both privateandpublic sectorsof theeconomy.He argued hat industrialisation

andeconomic evelopmentof SaudiArabiadependsntheexistence f efficientanddedicatedmanagersho aremotivatedo workhard o achievehegoalsof theorganisation.

1.2 Statement of the ProblemOneof the greatestproblems acing managementn developingcountriessuch asSaudiArabia ishow to motivateandsupport heir work forces n orderto generatemaximum individual andcollectiveefforts (MachungwaandSchmitt, 1983;At-Twaijri 1995). Problems


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are evident from the very low productivity, inefficiencies, and lack of will to work hard on the partof the work force of thesenations (Machungwa.and Schmitt, 1983).

The issuesof motivation andjob satisfactionn SaudiArabia have been he subjectsof acontroversy.Management xpertsandscholarsn SaudiArabia aredivided on this issue.Proponents f oneschool of thoughtargue hat Saudiemployeesare mainly motivatedby theuseof monetary ewards e.g. Al-nimr, 1993).Theorists rom the other school argue hat SaudiemPloyees anbemotivated owardshigher ob satisfactionby using non-monetary ewardssuchas giving employeesmore autonomy,power,andresponsibility(e.g. At-Twaijri et al, 1995).Thesescholarshavestated hatmotivation of employees, itherby theuseof monetaryor non-monetarymeans,playsan importantrole in determiningemployees'job satisfaction.

Despite he argumentsadvanced y eachgroup,no seriousattempthas beenmade o investigatetherelationshipof motivation needsand ob satisfactionof managersn SaudiArabia,particularlyin theprivatesector.An extensivesearchof the relevant iteratureon Saudi Arabia showed hatvery little researchhas beendoneon the issueof job satisfactionn theprivate sector,and noresearchwasfound about he issueof the relationshipof job satisfactionandthemotivation needsTherefore, he question hat still remainsunanswereds whether here s a relationshipbetweenmotivation needsand ob satisfactionamongmanagersn SaudiArabia.

Researchersn the developedcountrieshaveshown hat there s a relationshipbetweenmotivationneedsand ob satisfaction e.g.,ParkerandChusmir, 1991;Herzberg,1987; Herzberget al 1959;Porter, 1961). n addition,otherfactorscanalsoplay an mportantrole in determiningemployeejob satisfaction.Overall ob satisfactiondependson a largenumberof interactingvariables


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employee's job satisfaction. Other factors such as age,education and income can also affect anindividual's job satisfaction Clarket al, 1996,Gruenberg,1981).

Although anumber of research tudieshavebeenconductedon motivation and ob satisfaction,thesestudieshavebeenconducted rimarily in developed ountriessuchasUSA andUK. Verylittle research asbeendone n developingcountriessuchasSaudiArabia, and t is preciselyasthesenationsaredeveloping hatresearchs essentialf this development s to bemaximisedwithin thebusinessand ndustrialsector.

This study s an attempt o improveour understanding f job satisfactionand ts relationshipwithmotivationneedsandsomedemographicactors.Datafor this studywill becollectedby sample nSaudi,wheremodem ndustrialorganisations re relatively new and he field appearsipe forstudy,andfrom a UK sample o useasabenchmark for comparison.

Thepurposeof this research,herefore, s to explore actors hat affect ob satisfaction,measurethe level of satisfactionwith these actorsand heoverall ob satisfaction,andexamine herelationshipof job satisfactionandmotivation needsand somedemographicactorsamongmanagers mployed n theprivatesector n SaudiArabiaand n theUK.

1.3 Significant of the ProblemThestudyof job satisfactionndmotivations important ecauseof itsrelationshipo costreductionhroughncreasedndividualproductivitywhich n turn eadso economic nd ndustriagrowth.Smith 1992)statedhat ob satisfactionan ead o cost eductionbyreducingabsences


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health both mental and physical, more job stability, and potentially greater performance andproductivity (Cranny et al, 1992).According to Cranny et al (1992), the first step towardimproving job satisfaction is to determine its causesand correlation. Being aware of what causesjob satisfaction among employees can enablemanagementto take stepsthat will ensurecommitment and involvement from employees.

There s a need or this studyof job satisfactionand motivation amongmanagersn Saudi Arabiabecauseittle research asbeenconductedn SaudiArabia to examine heir causesand correlation.Basedon thedata hatwill becollected, heresearcherwill beableto locatesomeof the factorsthat influencemanagers'job satisfactionn SaudiArabia. This study s alsoneededbecausenootherstudyhasbeenundertakeno addresshis issue n SaudiArabiaand n theUK and comparethem.Theresultof this studywill have mportant mplications for those n businessandcounsellingwho are nvolved in the training andhiring of employees.This study s also mportantfor researchers nd organisationsnterestedn cross-culturalstudiesand may also serveas aguideline or further relatedstudiesboth in SaudiArabiaand otherdevelopingcountries.

1.4Theoretical RationalTheneed heoriesof motivation providethe theoretical ationale or this study.Needtheorieshavebeenamong hemost importantmodelsof work motivation, and oneof the mostpervasiveconceptsn the areaof work motivation is that of humanneeds Hay andMescal,1991). Severalneed heoriescanbe identified in the literature, or example,Maslow's (1970)needhierarchy,Herzberg's(1959)motivation- hygiene heory,andMurray's (1938)manifestneedsheory.Allthese heories,while differing in some espects, ave heir own meritsand imitations; all haveargued hathumanneeds epresenta primary driving forcebehind behaviour n


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needs heory is the most appropriate for this study becauseMurray does not suggestthat needsarearranged in a hierarchical form asdo some other need theorists such as Maslow. Murray's theoryallowsfor considerablelexibility in describingpeople.Using Murray's theory,researchersandescribe ndividualsashaving high needsor achievement nd autonomyand ow needsoraffiliation and power simultaneously. Murray recognises individual differences and has specifiedcontentwith which to measure eeds,or example,need or achievement, utonomy, affiliation,anddominance.

1.5 Research ObjectivesTheobjectivesof this research anbesurnmarised sfollows:

1. Examine he extentof theoverall ob satisfaction or managersn the SaudiandUKsamples.

2. Examine he level of satisfactionwith: work group,work itself, promotion,pay,supervision,andrecognitionand heir relationto theoverall ob satisfaction n the twosamples.

I Exploretherelationshipof job satisfactionand motivation needsn thetwo samples.4. Exploretherelationshipof job satisfactionandsomedemographic ariables n the two

samples.

1.6ResearchQuestionsThis researchwill try to answer he following questions:

1. Is therea significant difference n the averagesatisfactionwith work groupsbetweenSaudandUK managers?

2. Is therea significant difference n theaveragesatisfactionwith work itself between he


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3. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with promotion between theSaudi and UK managers?

4. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with pay between the Saudi andUK managers?

5. Is there a significant difference in the averagesatisfaction with supervision between theSaudi and UK managers?

6. Is there a significant difference in the average satisfaction with recognition between theSaudiandUK managers?

7. Is therea significantdifference n the averageof overall ob satisfactionbetween he SaudiandUK managers?

8. Does job satisfaction have a similar relationship with some consequencesof the level ofjob satisfaction n the two samples?9. To what extentdo age,education,salary, engthof service,and numberof dependants

contribute o job satisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples?10-To what extentdo the four motivational needscontribute o job satisfactionamong

managersn the two samples?11.Are thereanydifferences n the importanceof job factors or managersn the two different

cultures?12.Is therea significant difference n theneed or achievement etween he SaudiandUK

managers?13. Is therea significant difference n theneed or affiliation between he SaudiandUK

managers?14.Is therea significant difference n theneed or autonomybetween he SaudiandUK

managers?15.Is therea significant difference n theneed or dominancebetween he SaudiandUK

managers?

1.7 Research HypothesesTheresearchhypotheseswill bethe basis or thecollectionandanalysisof data n this study. Thestudyhas enhypotheses:


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1. There will be a significant positive relationship between the respondent's satisfaction withthe work group and the whole job satisfaction in the two samples.

2. There will be a significant positive relationship between the respondent's satisfaction withwork itself and hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.

3. Therewill be a significant positiverelationshipbetween he respondent'ssatisfactionwithpromotion and the whole job satisfaction in the two samples.

4. Therewill bea significantpositiverelationshipbetween he respondent'ssatisfactionwithpay andthewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.

5. Therewill bea significant positiverelationshipbetween herespondent'ssatisfactionwithsupervisionand hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.

6. Therewill bea significantpositiverelationshipbetween herespondent'ssatisfactionwithrecognitionand hewhole ob satisfactionn the two samples.

7. Therewill bea significant positiverelationshipbetween heneed or achievementand obsatisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.

8. Therewill bea significant positive relationshipbetween heneed or affiliation and obsatisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.

9. Therewill bea significant positive relationshipbetween heneed or autonomyand obsatisfactionamongmanagersn thetwo samples.10. Therewill bea significantpositive relationshipbetween heneed or dominanceand ob

satisfactionamongmanagersn the two samples.

1.8Organisation of the StudyThis study s organisednto eight chapters.Chapteronewill function as he introduction,dealingwith the problem perceived, he purposeandsignificanceof the study.Chapter wo reviewstheexisting literatureon ob satisfaction,covering his areaby discussing he existing definition,theories,associatedactors,motivationalneeds,consequencesf the level of satisfaction,andfinally measurements f job satisfaction.Chapter hreewill present he conceptof culture and


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Chapter ive contains heresearch esignand he methodsutilised in this research.Chaptersixpresentsa descriptiveanalysisof the dataanddatareductionusing factor analysis.Chaptersevcontains heresults of the studyand ests or theresearchhypotheses.The final chapter,chapteight,contains iscussionof theoverall indings,conclusion, nd ecommendationsor futureresearch.Referencesandappendiceswill bepresentedn the lastpart of this thesis.


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00Chapter Two: Literature review


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2.1 IntroductionThis chapters divided into elevensections.Sectionone will havean overview aboutobsatisfaction.Section wo and hreediscuss ariousdefinitionsof job satisfactionandmotivation.Section our presentsob satisfactionheories.Section ive is about he relationbetweenobsatisfactionandmotivation.Sectionsix is devoted o thefactorsassociatedwith job satisfaction.Sectionsevenshedssome ight ontheconsequencesf the level of job satisfaction.Sectioneightis aboutmeasuringob satisfaction.Sectionnine covers hemotivational needsand obsatisfactionssue.Section enis aboutmanagers s a focal point of study.And lastly, sectioneleven s a summaryof thechapter.

2.2 OverviewThe issueof what constitutesob satisfactionhasattractedhe interestof researchersor thepastforty years Locke, 1976).Thesestudieshavedevelopedgraduallyfrom a simpleevaluationofbasic heories o morecomplex ssuesand n-depth nvestigation o determine he causesandconsequencesf job satisfaction.Furthermore,a rangeof suggestions as beenmadeby severalsocialscientistsandresearchersesultingfrom variousstudiesusinga variety of academicmethodsn different organisations.All thesesuggestions re related o thevarious aspectsof jobsatisfaction.

Thecomplexsubjectof job satisfactioncanbebrokendown to into separateactorssuchaspay,supervisionandthework itself, but alongsideheseone must also consider henatureof theemployeeo ascertainwhetherhe getssatisfactionand, f so,thedegreeof that satisfaction.Becauseworkersspendnearlya third of their lives and hebestyearsof life at work, it isimportantthat theyshouldbe happyatwork. Most successfulorganisationsocusattentionon


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improving their workers' attitudes and increasing their satisfaction. This is essential as obdissatisfaction has an enormouseffect on performance and productivity (Petty et al., 1984).

Schulz (1998) emphasises he importance of job satisfaction studies in almost all fields andespecially in business, ndustry and the educational field.

2.3 Definition of Job SatisfactionTherearemanydefinitionsthathavebeenproposedo define ob satisfaction.Thesedefinitionsarenot identicalbecauseheyreflectresearchers' erceptions, nowledgeand experiencenresearchinghis subject. Thecore of thesedefinitions is thatjob satisfaction s the statewhenanemployeehasapositiveemotional eelingtowardshis ob. Vroorn (1964)proposedabasicorsimpledefinition; heused he terms"job satisfaction" and"job attitude" to refer to the"effectiveorientationon thepart of the individual towardswork roles which they are presentlyoccupying".Blum andNaylor (1968)perceivedjobsatisfactionas hegeneralattitudewhich reflectsspecificjob factors, ndividual characteristics, nd group relationshipoutside he ob. This definition ismoresophisticatedhanVroom's definition becauset showssomesourceof satisfactionanddissatisfaction.SalancikandPfeffer (1977)seeob satisfactionas a termwhich describeshestateof correspondenceetween he ob situationor job characteristics ndaperson'sneeds.Thus f an individual is satisfiedwith his ob, his ob characteristics resumably it his needs.

Oneof themostpopulardefinitionswasproposedby Locke (1976)who defined ob satisfactionas"a pleasurableor positive emotionalstate esultingfrom the appraisalof one's ob or jobexperiences".Knoop (1994) describesob satisfactionas"an attitudethat refers o the extent o

individuals


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Attitude wasdefinedas"the degreeof effecttowardsan object; such eelings owardswork areusually assessed ia measuresof job satisfaction" (Ribeaux and Poppleton, 1981). A similarorientationwasshownby Armstrong 1996)whenhe defined ob satisfactionas"the attitudesandfeelingspeoplehaveabout heir ob. Positiveandfavourableattitudes owards he obindicate ob satisfaction,andnegativeandunfavourableattitudes owards he ob indicate obdissatisfaction".

A generaldefinition was suggestedy Curning (1993)whenhe saidthat satisfaction n the workplace s theoppositeof frustrationand helatter is a resultof dissatisfactionwhich linked totension,poorphysicalconditions,and ailings in the ob concernedand work mates. n contrast,Herzberg 1968)said hatjob satisfactionanddissatisfactionare not oppositesof eachother. Hepostulated that the opposite ofj ob satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather no jobsatisfaction;andsimilarly, theoppositeof j obdissatisfactions not ob satisfactionbut, no obdissatisfaction;which in fact meansa feeling of indifference.

Onthat account, hepresent esearcher's efinition is that ob satisfaction s the attitude andfeelingthat anemployeehasabouthis ob resultingfrom the assessment adebasedon hisexperiencen the ob. Jobsatisfaction epresents positiveattitude owards he ob, whilenegativeor unfavourableattitudes owards he ob indicate ob dissatisfaction.

2.4 Definition of MotivationMotivation as a management oncepthasbeenassociatedwith theway employees,ncludingmanagers, ehaven their jobs andwith theway they accomplish heir tasks n theseobs.Motivation, asa management or function), is However,this


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doesnot preclude stating somedefinitions tried by many researchers.Among these are thefollowing reflective definitions:

"A motive is what perhaps prompts a person to act in a certain way or at leastdevelop a propensityfor specific behaviour" (Kast and Rosenzweig, 19 79,pp244).

"Weview thecentral problem of motivationastheexplanationof choicesmadebyorganismsamongdifferentvoluntaryresponses (Vroom, 1964,pp5).

"Motivation is thedegree o which an individual wantsandchooseso engage ncertain behaviour" (Hunt, 1992,pp23).

Froman organisationalpsychologyperspective,heabovementioneddefinitions relatemotivation to theway in which peopleactto achieve heir purposeand objectives n ordertofulfil their needs,desires,and goals n their obs.

Fromanorganisationalpsychologyandsocial-psychology erspective,he level of attainingindividuals' needs or goals) s mutually dependentn thework organisation.That is to say, helevel of goal congruencebetween heorganisation implied top level management ndowners'goals)and ndividuals' goalsdetermine heway individualsattaintheir objectives.This goalcongruenced determinedby manydifferent factors ncluding theway obs are structured,andtherelationshipbetweensuperiorsand subordinate,n additionto rewardsandvalues n bothemPloyees nd organisations KastandRosenzweing,1979).

2.5 Job Satisfaction TheoriesA greatdealof effort hasbeendoneby researchersn an attempt o explain and understandob


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particular organisation is associatedwith other important factors such as adequatefinancialresources,use of modem technology, competentadministrative policy, and theseare the keyfactors o that organisation'ssuccess. hehumanresources no longer ignoredsincebothorganisations and employeesperceive how important it is to satisfy the employees' needs.

Understandingob satisfactions as complex as understanding human-beingbecausewhatsatisfiesemployeesodaymight not satisfy hem omorrow; and what satisfies hemin oneplacemight not satisfy hemelsewhere.Onemust also consider hemajor individual differences nhumanbeingsas hey affect ob satisfaction.Furnharn 1994) Muchinsky (1993)andMullins(1996)stated hat despite he severalheorieswhich haveemergedn an attempt o soundout andexplainthis phenomenon, oneof these heorieshassucceededn embracingall thecircumstances urroundingob satisfaction.

Work motivation theoriesmaybedivided into two generalcategories: ontent(e.g. Maslow'sNeedHierarchy)andprocess e.g. ExpectancyTheory)theories.Content heories attempt oexplainthosespecificthingswhich actuallymotivate he individual at work"; while processtheories attemptto identify therelationshipamong hedynamicvariableswhich make upmotivation" (Mullins, 1996)andareconcerned ith identifyingan ndividual'sneeds ndstrengths,andthe goalsaimed or in orderto satisfytheseneeds.Content heoriesconcentrateonwhat motivates. n contrast,processheoriesconcern he actual processof motivation. Thesetheories ry to find out how behaviour s initiated, directedand sustained Mullins, 1996).

Most researchn internationalhumanresourcemanagement asbeencontentoriented,becausethese heoriesexploremotivation in moregeneral ermsand aremore useful in creatinga


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Content theories of motivation arerelated more to job satisfaction than process theories (Mullins,1996).Processheoriesaremoresophisticated nd endto focusmoreon individual behaviour nspecificsettingsand hushave essvalue o thestudy of employeemotivation in internationalsettings (Orpen and Nkohande, 1977).

Reviewingall theoriesof job satisfactionand whathasbeensaidabout hemis not thepurposeof this chapter;nevertheless, brief overview of themain andrelated deasof someof themostpopularob satisfaction heoriesamong esearchersmight well servea usefulpurpose.

2.5.1 Maslow's Need HierarchyAccordingto Maslow (1943), humanmotive emergesollowing a hierarchyof five needs,psychologicalneeds,safety/security, ocialor affiliation, achievementandesteem,and self-actualisationneeds.Thereare hreepremisesof this theory (Callahanet al., 1986).First, asatisfied eedsnot a motivatorof behaviour. econd,heneeds rearrangedn ahierarchy.Third, thereare morewaysto satisfyhigher-levelneedshanlower-levelneeds.

Despite ts centralposition in the literature,Maslow's theoryhasreceivedweakor no empiricalsupport SalancikandPfeffer, 1977;Callahanet al., 1986).Lawler andSuttle (1972)reportonlytwo levelsof needs a biological level, anda global level covering hehigher level needs. n areviewof thirteenstudies,WahbaandBridwell (1976)concluded hat the conceptof hierarchywas only partially supported.

Theconfusionbetweenneedsandvalues n Maslow's theorywas criticised by Locke (1976)whenhestated hat thehierarchymay differ with eachman, andthat a givenhierarchyandan


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Alderfer (1969) has redefined Maslow's needhierarchy as three broad categories of needs:existence, relatedness, and growth. He was less concerned with the hierarchical arrangement oftheneedcategories SalancikandPfeffer,1977).However,Alderfer shareshebelief withMaslowthatneedstructurewas virtually universalamong ndividuals.

Although Maslow did not intend hat theneedhierarchyshouldbeapplied o thework situation,it still remainspopular as a theoryof motivationat work. Despite heoreticalcriticisms andlimited support, hetheoryhas nfluencedpracticalmanagement pproacheso motivation andorganisationdesign o meetemployees'needs. t is a suitable ramework for looking at thedifferent needsandexpectationshatpeoplehave,and hedifferent motivators hat might beapplied o people at different levels(Mullins, 1996).

2.5.2Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene TheoryHerzberget al. (1959)considersob satisfactionanddissatisfactionas wo dimensions.Theyarguethat factors that lead to job satisfaction (e.g. motivators) are separate and distinct fromthose eading o job dissatisfaction e.g. hygiene). n general,hygiene actorsare extrinsic,preventingemployeesrom beingdissatisfiedor unhappy,but their presence oesnot leadto jobsatisfaction.On the otherhand,motivatorsare ntrinsic sothat when present hey contribute oemployees'job satisfaction. Accordingto this theory,ajob will enhancework motivation onlyto the extent hat motivationsaredesignednto thework itself, changeshat dealsolely withhygiene actorswill not generatemprovement Hackman,1980).

Herzberg'theory is a sourceof frequentdebate.Studies esting t haveproducedmixedconclusions Bockman,1971).However, t hasbeenattackedby a numberof writers. For


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example, Vroom. (1964) argues hat the theory was only one conclusion that could be drawn fromtheresearch.

HouseandWigder (1967)drawattentiono the influenceof individual differences.A factorwhich causesob satisfactionor onepersonmay causedissatisfactionor another.Theyconclude hat the theoryover-simplified.Also, they criticisedHerzberg'smethodology.Theyclaim that thecritical incidentmethodand hedescriptionof eventsgiving to goodor badfeelinginfluence heresults.Whenstudieshavebeenconductedwithout theuse of thecritical incidentmethod, esultsgenerallyaredifferentfrom thosepredictedby the tow-factor theory (Hulin andSmith, 1967).

In spiteof themethodologicalcriticismthathasbeen evelledagainst he Herzberg heory, it isimportant n that it wasoneof the first attemptso drawthedistinctionbetweenntrinsic andextrinsicmotivation (SalancikandPfeffer, 1977). t still enjoyspopularityandhasbecomewidely known amongmanagers ndhas nspireda numberof successful hangeprojectsinvolving the redesignof work (Hackman,1980; Callahanet al., 1986).

Theassumptionof universalhumanneedsby Maslow andHerzberget al wasstronglyquestionedby TurnerandLawrence 1965).Different individualsmayhavedifferent needs,or atleastdifferent strengthsof the sameneeds SalancikandPfeffer, 1977),andhencewill responddifferently to the sameob characteristicsHackmanandLawler, 1971;HackmanandOldham,1976;andHackmanandOldham,1980).


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2.5.3 Expectancy TheoryThe expectancyheory,as ormedby Vroom(1964), s built on thenotion of individuals' choicesof the type of behaviourwhichbrings hemahigherrewardof satisfactionor the lowestnegativeoutcome (or avoidance) of dissatisfaction. The rational/economic concept of "preferences"among different alternatives with different values constitutes a major part in the development ofthe theory.

Thetheoryrelates he estimatedenergyor effort (asa reflection of thedegreeof motivation) apersonputs in towards he attainmentor avoidanceof specific outcome(s)dependingupon aperson's belief' that thevalues or valence)of attainmentor avoidanceof thesespecificoutcome(s)s (are)to be"believed"positivelyor negativelyrelated o the performanceexpectedfrom his/herbehaviour.Thetheory s representedn the following formula:

F=fi (ExV)Theclarification of the four elementsn themodel s asfollows:Force (F) : refers o the energyapersonputstowardsperformancewhich is estimatedandreflects hedegreeof motivation.Expectancy(E) : refers o theprobability (belieO hat an actionwill leadto performance.Instrumentality: refers o the linkagebetweenperformanceand otheroutcome(s)whichdependson belief.Valence: desirability of estimatedvalueof different outcome(s)upon a person'sbelief.

It is to benoted hat both valence values)andexpectancyare combined ogether66multiplicatively" in orderto produce he expectedeffort. In otherwords,a personshouldperceive heconsequencesf the outcome(s)which couldbepositive,negativeor neutral.At the


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the action (performance), in order to estimate he level of effort of motivation needed.Basedonthe summation of expectanciesmultiplied by valences a person will act on which ever is higherto perform or lower to avoid.

Evidence or thevalidity of theexpectancymodel s mixed(Miller andGrush, 1988; Mitchell,1988).Although the expectancy quationmayoversimplify themotivational process,managerscan still use t to diagnosemotivationalproblemsor to evaluateeffective motivation.

2.5.4 Equity TheoryOneof thepopularcognitiveexplanations f humanbehaviour n work organisationss equitytheory.In equity theory,peoplearemotivated o maintain"fair relationshipswith others andrectify unfair relationshipsby makingthemfair" (Baron,1983).Threekey factorsused n

explainingandunderstandingmotivation n equitytheoryare: nputs,outcomes,and referents(Adams,1965). nputsarewhata personbringsto the ob suchas ageand skills. Outcomesarethings hat thepersonperceiveso bereceivedas a resultof work. They maybepositive factorssuchaspay andrecognition,or negativesuchasunsafeworking conditionsandpressurerommanagement. eferent s the focusof comparison or theperson,eitherother individuals or othergroups.

While equity theorybasicallymakesstrong ntuitive sense,he empirical evidencehas beenmixed (Kopelman,1977;Carrell andDittrich, 1976;CosierandDalton, 1983).The conceptof6equitysensitivity' playsa role in explainingthese indingsby suggestinghat individuals havedifferentpreferencesor equity that cause hemto reactconsistentlybut differently to perceiveequityand nequity (Husemanet al., 1987).Differences n intelligence,social values,


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personality, and gendermay also influence an individual's Perception of equity (Carrell andDittrich, 1976).

Equity theory oversimplifies the motivational issuesby not explicitly considering individualneeds,values, or personalities (Gordon, 1996). This oversimplification becomes extremelyimportantwhenthework forcebecomesmorediverse.Cross-culturaldifferencesmay play a rolein preferenceor equity in addition o thepreferred esponseso inequitablesituations.

2.5.5 Goal-Setting TheoryAnothercognitivetheoryof motivation s goal setting heory.Goal-setting heory is basedon asimplepremise:performances caused y aperson's ntentionto perform(LockeandLatham,1990).Goalsare"what a persons trying to accomplish"or intends o do (Locke, 1968).Researchesshowed hat goal-settingprograms mproveperformanceatboth managerialandnon-managerialevels in different organisationsLathamandYukl, 1975). t alsoconceived he rolethat feedbackplays on goalsetting. ndividualsrequired nformationabout heir effectivenessnmeeting heir goalsaspartof continuing o work towards hem(BannisterandBalkin, 1990;Larson,1984;Liden andMitchell, 1985).Goodfeedbackcan engendera senseof achievement,accomplishment,ecognition,andcanproduce mprovementandmore creativeeffort (LathamandLocke, 1979).

Erezet al. (1985) hassuggestedhat characteristics f theparticipants n goal setting, suchastheir authorityor education,mayhaveanimpacton its effectiveness.ErezandZidon (1984)reported hat thedifficulty and acceptance f goalsare major determinantsor workerstoperforma task.The effect of goal setting,however,maydiffer acrossculture(ErezandEarley,


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2.5.6 Control TheoryA control theory model of human motivation is put forward by Lord and Hanges (1987). Controltheory is a cognitive phenomenon relating to the degreethat individuals perceive they are incontrol of their own lives, or are n control of their obs, (Luthans,1995). Studieshaveshownthat thosewho believe hey havesuchpersonalcontrol tolerateunpleasanteventsand experiencelessstresson the ob than thosewho do not perceivesuchcontrol (GansterandFusilier, 1989;Fox et al., 1993).There s also someevidencehat perceivedcontrol will affect ob satisfactionand absenteeismDwyer andGanster,1991).

In additionto the theoriesmentionedabove,othertheoriesand studieshave been ound in theliteratureregardingob satisfaction,and hesearenow considered:

Self-determinationheory (Deci andRyan, 1985 suggestshat individuals in a givensocialcontextwill bemore self-motivatedand experiencegreaterwell-being to the extentthattheyfeel competent,autonomous or self-determined), nd related(or connected to others.

HackmanandOldham's (1980)Job CharacteristicModel suggestshat work satisfactionis determinedby one'scritical psychologicalstateswhich in turn are causedby the five core obcharacteristicdimensionsof taskvariety, tasksignificant, taskautonomy, ask identity, andfeedback.Employeegrowth strengthmoderatesherelationship.

The SituationalOccurrenceTheory of job satisfaction Quarsteinet al., 1993 ) holdsthatjob satisfactions determinedby "situational characteristics" those facets hat applicants endtoevaluate to ob,


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tend not to be pre-evaluated).The latter are relevant after the applicant has acceptedthe job, andmay be unexpectedto the individual.

To conclude, hevarious heoriesof motivation hathave beendiscussedall focuson causesofhumanbehaviour,althougheachusesdifferentpsychologicalconceptso explainbehaviour. t isimportant o notethatvarious heorieshaveboundaries.There s no onebest heoryofmotivationand someseembettersuited o dealwith certain opicsthanothers.Landy andBecker(1987)pointsout thatneed heoriesare most widely used o study satisfactionand work effort.Expectancyheorycanbeused o predict ob and organisational hoicesand withdrawalbehaviour.Goal-setting heoryhasbeenrelated o choice and performance.

Understandingeachof thesedifferentapproacheso motivation is usefulbecauset givesthemanager everalwaysto look atproblems.As a result,heor she mayarrive at bettersolutionsmore quickly and effectively.

2.6 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and MotivationSince heearly studiesof job satisfaction,manyresearchersavegivenconsiderableattention othesubjectof motivation in an attempt o clarify and explainhowjob satisfaction s constructed.As the researchon ob satisfactionevolved,researchersried to separatehe conceptof jobsatisfaction rom that of motivation. For example,McCormick andIlgen (1992)believethatalthoughob satisfactionandwork motivation are related o eachotherto ahigh degreeandsometimesound in the literature n a singlesection, he two topicsareconsideredasdistinctsubjects.Theypointedout that while job satisfaction s related o one's feeling towardsone'sjob, is


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Nevertheless, they went on to saythat the theories of motivation are to some extent theories ofjob satisfaction.

A similar orientationwasshownby Dubrin (1972),whenhe distinguishedbetween hetwotopics, defining them differently. He perceivedmotivation asthe expenditure of effort towardsaccomplishinga goal,while job satisfactionwas seenasa positive feeling towardswork.

Therelationshipbetweenob satisfactionandmotivation might beviewed according o theconstructof the theoryconcerned. or example, rom the two-factor theoryperspective(Herzberget al. (1959), therelationshipcanbe seenas a direct one.According to the two-factortheory, he ob content actors(themotivators), f considered,will leadto job satisfaction.

If the relationship s viewedfrom theexpectancyheory, t becomesndirect. According to thistheory, ob satisfaction s far from beingadirect influenceon motivatedbehaviour owardsachieving asksor goals which expectedo lead o rewards or first level outcomes).This in turnmight meet ndividuals' needs or secondevel outcomes),whereeffort or performance which isdependenton individuals' choices)aremoulded according o this chain(Campellet al., 1970).Accordingto this theory, ob satisfaction s a function of rewardswhich may or may not bedirectfunction of behaviour(Campbellet al., 1970).

Despite hevery closerelationshipbetweenob satisfactionand work motivation to the extentthat it is difficult to distinguishbetween hetwo topics, it canbedealtwith in the academicresearcheseparately.Schultz(1998)agreedwith that whenhe suggestedhat:


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ofsatisfaction can generateother motivations. From an academic andtheoretical standpoint we can separate the two and discuss themindividually "

Mullins (1996)suggestedhat ob satisfaction ndmotivationare usually relatedbut the natureofthis relationship s not clear.He assertedhat ob satisfactions moreof an attitude,an internalstate,while motivation is a processwhich maylead o job satisfaction.Organisationsshouldknow that ahighly motivatedemployeedoesnot meanavery satisfiedemployeeandvice versa(SteersandPorter,1991).

In thepresentstudy,distinctionwill bedrawn between hetwo topics andwill usemotivationand ob satisfactionas nterlinkedconcepts.However,ob satisfaction s, andwill be, the mainconcernof the research.

2.7 Factors Associated with Job SatisfactionThe nterestsof manyscholarsn job satisfactionstem rom their belief that ob satisfactionrepresents n mportanttheme n understanding rganisationsandthe individuals within. Thisbelief providesan ndispensableustification for the studiesof job satisfaction,showingandemphasisingts relatednesso individuals and organisations.Therefore, iteratureon workmotivation in generaland n job satisfaction n particular s voluminousandnot all of theliteratureproduced s directly related o this study.Hence,a selectedsubsethas beenreviewedwhich hasa direct relevant o the currentstudy.

Researchersaveexaminedseveralvariablesandoutcomeshat correlatewith or contributeto


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"(1) Variables that describecharacteristics of thejob tasksperformed by the workers;(2)variables that describe characteristics of the organisations in which the tasks areperformed; and (3) variables that describe characteristics of the workers whoperform thetask " P.61

Thepresentstudywill be focusedon variables elated o the first andthird

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