8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

1/96

1

UNIVERSITATEA DETIINE AGRICOLE

I MEDICIN VETERINAR

ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD IA

I

FACULTATEA DE AGRICULTUR Specializarea Agricultur

NVMNT LA DISTAN

OLGA PNZARU

LIMBA ENGLEZ Vol. II

Iai 2011

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

2/96

2

Cuv nt nainte

Cursul de fa este destinat studenilor din anul II, specializarea

Agricultur, I.D. Cursul poate fi utilizat de oricine aflat deja la un nivel mediusau avansat de cunoatere a limbii englezei care dorete s-i mbunteasc bagajul de cunotine de specialitate.

Obiective generale:

Formareai dezvoltarea competenelor de comunicare oral i scris ale studenilor (limbaj generali de specialitate)

Formareai dezvoltarea deprinderilor de studiu academic, informareicomunicare de profil

Competene:1. cognitive: Consolidarea elementelor de construcie a comunicrii n limba

englez nsuite n ciclurile decolaritate anterioare (elemente de fonetic,lexic, morfosintax, semantic, organizarea discursului);

mbog irea cunotinelor de limba englez cu elemente de construciea comunicrii noi, cu accent pe: lexic de specialitate, organizareadiscursului profesional, texte din domeniul agronomic;

Identificarea, n mesaje oralei texte scrise de profil, a ideilor principalei a informaiilor/detaliilor specifice,i corelarea lor, n modcoerent, pentru a rezolva o sarcin de lucru;

Oferireai solicitarea, oral / n scris, de informaii i instruciuni clarei precise pentru ndeplinirea unei sarcini de lucru

Prezentarea, oral / n scris, de descrieri clarei detaliate, pe subiectelegate de domeniul de specializare

Susinerea, cu argumente relevante, a unui punct de vedere n cadrulunei discuii/dezbateri/ al unui schimb de mesaje scrise, pe teme despecialitate

Avansarea, oral sau n scris, a unor ipotezei formularea de r spunsuriadecvate la ipotezele emise de ceilali

Traducerea, orali / sau n scris, din limba englez n limba matern/din limba matern n limba englez a unor texte/ mesaje de dificultatemediei ridicat, din domeniile de interes.

2. profesionale: Completarea de formularei redactarea de texte funcionale, cu respectarea

conveniilor specifice Documentarea n literatura de specialitate Dobndirea unor cunotine profesionale necesare desf ur rii unei

activit i n limba englez n ntreprinderi sau n alte organizaii dindomeniul specializrii

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

3/96

3

3. afectiv-valorice: Pe parcursul studierii limbii engleze n ciclul universitar se va avea nvedere cultivareai dezvoltarea la studeni a urmtoarelor valoriiatitudini:

Manifestarea flexibilitii n cadrul schimbului de ideii ncadrul lucrului n echip n diferite situaii de comunicare

Contientizarea rolului limbii engleze ca mijloc de acces la piaa munciii la patrimoniul culturii universale Disponibilitatea pentru acceptarea diferenelor i pentru

manifestarea toleranei prin abordarea critic a diferenelor i astereotipurilor culturale

Dezvoltarea interesului pentru descoperirea unor aspectesocio-culturale i profesionale specifice, prin receptarea uneivarieti de texte n limba englez

Derularea activitilor

Lucrarea este mpr it n unit i. Fiecare unitate este structurat dup o schem comun i conine: un text suport explicarea termenilor de specialitate ( EXPLANATORY NOTES;

Words and Phrases) activit i de nvare/aprofundare (COMPREHENSION) un test de autoevaluare (SELF-EVALUATION) o lucrare de verificare/control din care o parte din exerciii vor

constitui materia pentru evaluare (PROGRESS TEST; TESTPAPER)

bibliografie

Cursul este structurat tematic. Activit ile vor fi parcurse n ordinea prezentrii.Textele selecionate din diverse tratate, manuale, cursurii lucr ri dinliteratura de specialitate englez i romn, au fost organizate dup criterii aledisciplinelor de predare cu profil agricol pentru a facilita asimilarea fireasc aunor expresiii cuvinte de uz curent. Fiecare text de specialitate, pe lng cuvintelei expresiile englezeti cu echivalentele lor din limba romn este nsoitde un numr de exerciii lexico gramaticale care au drept scop fixareaelementelor de vocabulari a noiunilor de gramatic.O atenie deosebit seacord activitilor de traducerei retroversiune, considerndu se c acesteailustraz cel mai bine competena lingvistic a cursanilor, iar exerciiile creativesolicit opinii personale din partea cursanilor privind problema abordat.

EvaluareaTematica evalurii semestriale va constitui o opiune indicat de ctre

profesor a unor subiectei exerciii prezentate la finalul fiecrei unit i sub titlulTest paper.

Media semestrial va fi constituit din: 60% r spunsuri la colocviu

15% activit i aplicative asistate 25% lucrare de control Autoarea

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

4/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

5/96

5

UNIT10 BIODIVERSITY... 71Exercises............................................................................................................... 73

UNIT 11EMPLOYMENT CORRESPONDENCE .... 78

Exercises............................................................................................................... 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY MODULE IV ........................................................................ 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY (MODULE I-VIII).............................................................. 93

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

6/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

7/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

8/96

8

healthy green colour. Another valuable nitrogenous fertilizer is urea, which ismade from ammonia and carbon dioxide, and contains 46 % nitrogen.

The most widely used phosphatic fertilizer, superphosphate, is made bytreating mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. Phosphorous stimulates the

formation of a plants roots, and promotes fruit and seed production.Finally, wherever high crop yields are expected, potash is used together

with nitrogen and phosphorous. Potassium makes the plant tissues stronger. Thishelps the plant to withstand mechanical damage such as broken branches, and tornleaves. In this way the entry of disease bearing agents, or pathogens, such as bacteria and fungi, is prevented. Potassium is important for all plants but particularly so for those that produce oil and starch or sugars.

All plants are affected by the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Theless the nutrient supply, the more acid the soil becomes. Because mineral salts are basic, an acid soil has a low base content. Acidity makes some elementsunavailable to plants. If a soil is very acid, with a pH value of less than 5-0, limecan be added to correct this acidity. The main constituent of lime is calcium, animportant plant food. The presence of lime helps to make essential elements of plant food more easily available to plants. Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassiumare more easily available in a well-limed soil than in an acid soil.

Plant hormones and growth regulators

Plant hormones and growth regulators are chemicals that affect flowering;aging; root growth; distortion and killing of leaves, stems, and other parts; prevention or promotion of stem elongation; color enhancement of fruit; prevention of leafing and/or leaf fall; and many other conditions. Very small

concentrations of these substances produce major growth changes.Hormonesare produced naturally by plants, whileplant growth regulators are applied to plants by humans. Plant growth regulators may be synthetic compounds (e.g., IBA andCycocel) that mimic naturally occurring plant hormones, or they may be naturalhormones that were extracted from plant tissue (e.g., IAA). Appliedconcentrations of these substances usually are measured in parts per million (ppm)and in some cases parts per billion (ppb). These growth-regulating substances

most often are applied as a spray to foliage or as a liquid drench to soil around a plant's base. Generally, their effects are short lived, and they may need to bereapplied in order to achieve the desired effect. There are five groups of plant-

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

9/96

9

growth-regulating compounds:auxin, gibberellin (GA), cytokinin, ethylene, andabscisic acid (ABA). For the most part, each group contains both naturallyoccurring hormones and synthetic substances.

Auxin causes several responses in plants:

Bending toward a light source (phototropism) Downward root growth in response to gravity (geotropism) Promotion of apical dominance Flower formation Fruit set and growth Formation of adventitious roots

Auxin is the active ingredient in most rooting compounds in whichcuttings are dipped during vegetative propagation.

Gibberellins stimulate cell division and elongation, break seed dormancy,and speed germination. The seeds of some species are difficult to germinate; youcan soak them in a GA solution to get them started.

Unlike other hormones,cytokinins are found in both plants and animals.They stimulate cell division and often are included in the sterile media used forgrowing plants from tissue culture. If a medium's mix of growth-regulatingcompounds is high in cytokinins and low in auxin, the tissue culture explant(small plant part) will produce numerous shoots. On the other hand, if the mix hasa high ratio of auxin to cytokinin, the explant will produce more roots. Cytokininsalso are used to delay aging and death (senescence).

Ethylene is unique in that it is found only in the gaseous form. It inducesripening, causes leaves to droop (epinasty) and drop (abscission), and promotessenescence. Plants often increase ethylene production in response to stress, andethylene often is found in high concentrations within cells at the end of a plant'slife. The increased ethylene in leaf tissue in the fall is part of the reason leaves falloff trees. Ethylene also is used to ripen fruit (e.g., green bananas).

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a general plant-growth inhibitor. It inducesdormancy and prevents seeds from germinating; causes abscission of leaves,

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

10/96

10

fruits, and flowers; and causes stomata to close. High concentrations of ABA inguard cells during periods of drought stress probably play a role in stomatalclosure.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

manure = ngr mnt natural, gunoi, blegarto manure = a ngr a pmntulgreen manure = ngr mnt verde, ngr mnt sideralfarmyard manure = gunoi de grajd, blegardung = baleg, blegarlitter = aternut de paie folosit n grajduriexcreta pl. (fiziol.) = excreiileguminous crop = leguminoaseto plough = a ara, a s pa (brazd)

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION Rewrite the following using other words and construction from the

text where possible.

a) A mixture of litter, solid excreta and urine improves the physical conditions ofthe soil and makes up for lost plant nutrients.

b) The most commonly used fertilizer which contains nitrogen is made bycombining ammonia with sulphuric acid.

c) When applied to the soil, the product which results from treating mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid promotes the production of fruit and seeds.

d) Broken branches and torn leaves allow pathogens such as bacteria and fungi toenter the plant and destroy it.

e) Essential elements of plant food are not readily available in a soil with a pHvalue of less than 5-0.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

11/96

11

SELF - EVALUATION

Combine each pair of sentences into a single sentence. Change thesecond sentence into a relative clause and insert it into the first sentence at

the point indicated by the dots.

a) A leguminous crop will add as much nitrogen to the soil peracre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure. A leguminous crop is ploughedunder

b) Solid excreta, or faeces, is the material .. The material has passed through the animal without being digested.

c)

Ammonium sulphate is the most commonly used nitrogenousfertilizer. Ammonium sulphate supplies the soil with nitrogen and sulphur.

d) When crude salt is purified it is called muriate of potash Muriate of potash contains 50-60 % K 2O

e) Another fertilizer is urea. This fertilizer contains nitrogen.f) A soil .. will contain quite a high proportion of calcium. Such a

soil has a pH value of 6-5 or more.g) The roots of leguminous crops such as clover bear nodules

The nodules contain bacteria ..... These bacteria accumulatenitrogen from the air.

h) A compost is a mixture of partly broken down material .. Thismaterial is usually made up of leaves or grass cuttings.

i) Fungi . can be controlled by means of chemical substancesFungi attack the aerial parts of the crop, the leaves, stems etc. These chemicalsubstances are known as fungicides.

j) In addition to the method of disease control .. there are othermethods of control Disease control attacks the diseaseorganism. These other methods are particularly important in crop production.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

12/96

12

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:Manure is added to the soil for several reasons. It improves the physical

condition of the soil. It also keeps up the level of humus in the soil, and maintainsthe best conditions for the activities of soil organisms. Finally, it makes up for the plant nutrients which have been removed by crops or lost by leaching and soilerosion. Green manure includes leguminous crops which grow quickly such asclover and lucerne. Such crops supply additional nitrogen as well as organicmatter. A leguminous crop which is ploughed under will add as much nitrogen tothe soil per acre as 3 to 10 tons of farmyard manure.

Compound fertilizers are multiple nutrient materials supplying two orthree plant nutrients simultaneously. Mixed fertilizers containing all the three principal nutrients (N, P and K) usually meet nutrient deficiencies in a more balanced manner and require less labour to apply them than straight fertilizersused separately.

Plant hormones, known as phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate a plant's growth. According to a standard animal definition, hormones are signal

molecules produced at specific locations, that occur in very low concentrations,and cause altered processes in target cells at other locations. Unlike animals, plants lack specific hormone-producing tissues or organs. Plant hormones areoften not transported to other parts of the plant and production is not limited tospecific locations. Plant hormones are chemicals that in small amounts promoteand influence the growth, development and differentiation of cells and tissues.Hormones are vital to plant growth; affecting processes in plants from flowering

to seed development, dormancy and germination. They regulate which tissuesgrow upwards and which grow downwards, leaf formation and stem growth, fruitdevelopment and ripening, as well as leaf abscission and even plant death.

TEST PAPERTranslate into English:

TERRAFERTIL este un ngr mnt 100% natural, mineral-organic,neavnd n compoziia sa nici un fel de conservant. Este un produs obinut n urma prelucr rii la temperaturi nalte a composturilor animaliere. Materiile primefolosite sunt 100% de origine animal neavnd n compoziie nici un ingredient

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

13/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

14/96

14

(plant-killing) chemicals. Another technique is to introduce insects that attackonly the unwanted plant and destroy it while leaving the crop plants unharmed.

The inadequacy of the cultural, mechanical, and biological controlsystems, however, stimulated the rapid development of chemical usage and since

World War II have had an impact on crop production,changing many cultural andmechanical agricultural operations.

Herbicides are formulated as wettable powders, granular materials,emulsions, and solutions. Any of them may be applied as a spot treatment, broadcast, placed in bands, or put directly on a specific plant part. Whenformulated as solutions or emulsions, the chemical is mixed with water or oil.

Spraying is the most common method, permitting extremely small

amounts to be applied uniformly because of dilution. Sprays can be accuratelydirected underneath growing plants, and calibration and rate control are easierwith spray machines than with granular applicators. Granular formulations haveadvantages under some conditions, however. The use of herbicides must beintegrated into the overall farm program because the optimum date andapplication rate depend on the crop stage, the weed stage, weather conditions, andother factors.

Careful use of herbicides in farm production lowers cost, resulting in amore economical product for the consumer. Herbicides cut the costs of raisingcotton, for example, by reducing labour requirements for weed control up to 60 percent. Herbicides replace hand labour in growing crops, labour that is no longeravailable in developed nations at costs the farmers can afford. Machines forchemical application are widely available.

Plant diseases controlPlant diseases are caused by organisms which use the crop plant as a

host. These are mainly micro-organisms e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses. These parasitic micro-organisms live off the food nutrients in the tissue cells of the plants. They frequently kill the host tissues, and either the whole plant or a part ofit is damaged and killed. Micro-organisms are reproduced and spread by minute bodies such as spores, fungi and bacteria. Wind, water, diseased plants, cuttingsand tubers, animals, men and insects are some of the means whereby disease is

disseminated.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

15/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

16/96

16

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION

Rewrite th following using other words and constructions from the textwhere possible.

a) Weeds which grow quickly and spread far are difficult to get rid of. b) A way which is frequently advised to eradicate weeds which last a long time is

to plough first and then cultivate lightly.c) Plant diseases are spread in a variety of ways by wind, water, animals, men

and insects, for instance.d) In order to control soil-borne diseases a chemical that easily change into a gas

or vapour can be injected into the soil under a polythene sheet.

SELF - EVALUATION

Write down and complete the sentences by filling in the blanks with a

past participle modifier or a present participle modifier. Form each modifierfrom one of the verbs in the list.

fix spray lime operaterecommenddrive cultivate dust beardraw compose

Example: Leguminous plants have nitrogenfixing bacteria growing on theirroots, which extract nitrogen from the soil air, use what they need themselves, and pass on the rest to the host plant.

a) For carrying out heavy jobs which need a lot of power, such as ploughingor land reclamation, tractor .. implements are superior inevery way to manually . or bullock ..implements.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

17/96

17

b) Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are more easily available to plants ina well- soil than in a soil which has a low pH value and is thereforeacid.

c) Due to the fact that grasslands have diminished in many countries in recent

years fodder crops have become increasingly important, particularly for dairy cattle.

d) In the case of soil-. diseases where the fungus living in the soilattacks the seeds or seedlings, soil disinfectants or sterilizers such asformaldehyde or formasan are helpful in destroying the fungus.

e) One of the . methods of eradicating the paddy stem borer isdipping the seedlings in 0-1 % DDT suspension before transplanting.

f)

As most vegetable crops are usually affected by a variety of fungus andvirus diseases and a number of insect pests, it is better for the farmer toequip himself with the necessary and ..machines.

g) .. manure, or compost, can be made from different sorts ofwaste material including padi-straw, grass clippings, sugar-cane refuse,etc.

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Weed-killers are of two basic types: selective and non-selective. Theformer remove certain weeds from certain crops. Non-selective weed killers may be used for removing all vegetation e.g. as brush killers. They must be usedextremely carefully for the simple reason that they will eradicate all plants oncontact which includes the crop itself. They are usually used before sowing or before the emergence of the crop itself.

The future of chemical pesticides and herbicides is under debate by thosewho manufacture, sell, and use them and by those who are concerned about

environmental quality. The value of an assured food and fibre supply atreasonable cost is undeniable, and chemicals contribute much toward this. These

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

18/96

18

substances also cause undesirable effects upon the environment, however, andindeed can be toxic to a wide range of organisms. This fact will demand anincreasing amount of care in using chemicals, perhaps enforced by law, alongwith increasing use of nonchemical control techniques.

Plant disease may be defined as a condition in which the plant as a whole,or many part of it, does not perform its normal function. It may be brought about by a number of organisms which are all microscopic in size such as fungi, bacteria, viruses etc., or by physiological causes. These micro-organisms obtaintheir food in two ways: by breaking down dead plants or animal remains(saprophytes) or by attacking living plants and animals (parasites).

Fungi are micro-organisms that can be controlled by means of chemical

substances known as fungicides. There are many kinds of fungicide but they areall used by spraying or dusting them on to the plant surfaces. Bacteria aremicroscopic cellular organisms. They occur, like fungi, both in the air and in thesoil.Virus diseases are usually spread by direct contact, through diseased cuttingsand grafts and by insects. Virus diseases cannot be prevented or cured bychemicals. Thus, the use of disease-free seed is essential to reduce infection. To prevent the disease seeds should be planted early and close. Clean seed should beused and infected plants uprooted and burnt.

It is very difficult to kill fungi and bacteria and to inactivate virus once it isinside the host plant. Hence, the control of plant disease increasingly lies in preventing infection. The development of disease resistant varieties has, however,revolutionized methods of disease control. Nowadays, varieties of most of theeconomic crops which are resistant to certain important diseases are available tofarmers.

TEST PAPERTranslate into English :

La fel ca oameniii animalelei plantele sufer de diverse boli. Apariialor este adesea o consecin a condiiilor nefavorabile n care sunt crescute. ncazul unei plante, boala este determinat de efectele adverse ale agenilor patogeniinfecioi care se multiplic pe suprafaa sau n interiorul unei plante, avnd potenialul de a se extindei la alte plante. Agenii patogenii diver i duntori ai

plantelor (nematozii) pot deteriora orice parte a acestora determinnd: defolierea,cloroza, oprirea creterii, ncetarea fotosintezei, leziuni, necrozei n final

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

19/96

19

moartea plantei. Mult mai de temut dect atacul diver ilor duntori, suntdiuversele boli transmise prin intermediul ciupercilor microscopice (bolilecriptogamice), bacteriilor (bacteriozele) sau virusurilor (virozele). Ele semanifest prin diverse pete, decolor ri sau deformri care se extind rapid la

nivelul ntregii plante.

UNIT 3

THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

To properly grow into profit making crops, plants require a certainenvironment. This environment can be divided into two parts: theundergroundenvironment in which thr roots live and grow, and theabove ground environment in which the visible part of the plant exists.

THE UNDERGROUND ENVIRONMENT

Although some plants require a more specialized undergroundenvironment, there are certain factors that affect the growth and development ofall plants. Themedium ( soil or soil substitute ) in which plants are grown is avery important factor. Through their roots which anchor them in the soil, plantstake in air moisture, and minerals all vital to plant life. Many times, plant food isadded to the soil to encourage better growth.

Soil is a residue composed of two main ingredients: mineral material andorganic material. Organic material originates from dead plants and animals andmaterials other than this are derived from rocks of various kinds. These rocks are broken down into small particles by mechanical disintegration and chemicaldecomposition. This breaking down process, known asweathering , may thus be both physical and chemical.

When weathering processes are largely physical by heat or wind, forinstance - the composition of the soil is very similar to that of the parent rock. Inarid regions weathering is mostly by physical means. But in humid regions

chemical processes of weathering are equally important. In such regions rock particles are affected by water which may contain carbonic or other weak acids.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

20/96

20

These acids dissolve some of the particles in the rocks. The mineral material thatis left behind is insoluble. Consequently, the insoluble mineral residues in thesoils have less resemblance to the original rocks. There are larger amounts oforganic matter in the soil, too.

The process of soil formation results in the development of the soil profile.This is made up of a succession of horizontal layers, or horizons, of varyingthickness, from the surface to the parent rock . Generally speaking, there are threedistinct horizons, known as A, B and C. A is the top soil, which is coarse-grained, and dark in colour because of the presence of humus. B is known as thesub-soil which contains some of the products leached, or washed, out of thehorizon. The C horizon consists of parent material which has been weathered in

the upper part, and unweathered rock below.Any sample of soil contains particles of different sizes. These have beendivided into the following size groups:

TABLE 1

Material Diameter (mm)

gravelcoarse sandfine sandsilt

clay

more than 2.02.0 0.20.2 0.020.02 0.002

less than 0.002

Soils range from pure clays to pure sands. Most of them contain various proportions of sand, silt and clay and these varying proportions make up a soilstextural class. The principle classes in order of increasing fineness of material are

sand, loamy sand, loam, silt loam, silty clay loam, clay loam, silt and clay.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

21/96

21

Any soil contains both mineral and organic matter. Clay particles are themost important of the mineral particles because they are the smallest. Smallersized particles have a greater exposed surface area than larger sized particles. Thesmaller the size of a particle, the greater is its reactivity. That is to say, smaller

sized particles can react or combine with water, nutrients and humus more easilythan larger sized particles. Thus, a clay soil is more reactive than any other type ofsoil.

Humus from decomposed organic matter is vital to a soil as it makes aheavy soil lighter. In addition, it helps to bind the mineral particles together incrumbs.

Types of Soils

Types of Soil: Clay

Clay soils contain very fine, flat particles which tend to stick together.They feel heavy and sticky and form a little ball when you rub a small amount between finger and thumb. A handful of damp clay will retain the impression ofyour fingers and may appear shiny on the surface.

Disadvantages: When wet they are sticky and hard to work, and when drythey set hard and crack. They are prone to waterlogging and tend to warm up laterin the spring than more open sandy soils.

Advantages: They are usually very rich in nutrients and their texture andworkability can be improved by adding grit and bulky, very well rotted, organicmatter. Improved clay soils will support quite a wide variety of plants.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

22/96

22

Types of Soil: Silt

Silty soils fall between clay and sand in terms of particle size, and feelsmooth, silky or soapy when rubbed between your fingers. They may form a fairly

cohesive ball in the palm of your hand although they cannot be moulded in thesame way as clay.

Disadvantages: When wet they tend to pack down and become heavy,cold and poorly drained rather like clay, although not to the same extent. Theywarm up quicker than clays but more slowly than sandy soils.

Advantages: They are generally quite fertile and will support a wide range

of plants.

Types of Soil: Sand

Sandy soils have a much larger particle size than clays and silts and feelquite gritty between your fingers. If you squeeze them when wet they don'tusually hold their shape.

Disadvantages: The larger particle size means they are very free drainingand tend to lose nutrients easily.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

23/96

23

Advantages: They are easy to work and warm up quickly in spring so youcan get your season off to a flying start. The texture and fertility can be improved by adding rich organic matter.

Types of Soil: Chalk

Chalk soils were described by Geoff Hamilton as 'pale and hungry looking'which sums them up really well! They feel dry and crumbly in your hand, areusually greyish white in colour, and contain fragments of white chalk.

A ball of chalky soil will collapse into fairly large particles.

Disadvantages: They tend to be very stony and shallow and will notsupport deep rooted plants. They are very free draining and lose nutrients easily.Importantly, these types of soil are also very alkaline and will not support acidloving plants.

Advantages: They can be improved with the addition of organic matterand are reasonably fertile. There is also a good range of lime tolerant plants.

Types of Soil: Peat

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

24/96

24

Peat soils have a very high organic content so are very dark, almost black,in colour. In your hand they feel moist and spongy and are hard to roll into a ball.If you look closely you will see that they contain many fibrous plant remains.

Disadvantages: In general they easily become waterlogged and areusually acidic so you will not be able to grow lime loving plants. The acidity alsomeans that they support only a limited range of beneficial soil organisms.

Advantages: They are potentially very fertile and can be cultivated quiteintensively. The addition of lime to selected areas will enable you to grow fruitand vegetables. You can make the most of your ornamental garden by growing themany beautiful acid loving plants.

Types of Soil: Loam

In practice, most cultivated soils fall somewhere in between these broadcategories and are a blend of different particle sizes. These types of soil are knownas 'loams'. The main characteristics of these loams are those of the predominantmineral.

Disadvantages: Clay loams tend to be heavy and slow draining and are

difficult to work when wet. In very dry conditions they harden and form surfacecracks. Sandy loams, on the other hand, are free draining. They are quite easy towork but dry out easily and nutrients are quickly lost. Silty loams are prone tocompaction and tend to settle into a dense airless mass.

Advantages: The fact that loams contain a broader range of particle sizesmeans that they do not display the extreme characteristics and behaviour of, say, a pure clay or sandy soil, and are easier to work with.

http://www.enjoy-your-garden.con

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

25/96

25

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

weathering = alterare, ansamblu al schimrilor fizice, chimicei biologice, produse n roci sub influena agenilor atmosferici, plantelori microorganismelor. parent rock = roc mam soil profile = profil de sollayer = strat, stratificaiecoarse-grained

coarse = aspru, gros, de calitate inferioar , prostgrained = granulat, gr unos, zgrunuroscoarseness = asprime, microgranulaieleach = 1. a filtra, 2. a trata cu leieleaching = levigare, splaresand = nisipsilt = nmol, ml, aluviune

clay = argil, lut, hum texture = textur loam = lut, pmnt argilos, pmnt rodnic, fertilcrumb = f r mituri, f rme, fragmentehumus = humus, pmnt vegetalsandy clay = argil slab, nisipoas clay ground = sol argilos, pmnt gleicgravel = pietri prundi silty clay = argil pr foas clay loam = lut argilossilt loam = lut pr fos

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

26/96

26

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION

Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italicswith expressions from the text which have the same meaning.

a) Material other than mineral material is derived from dead plants andanimals.

b) Breaking down rocks into small particles is performed mostly byheat orwind in arid and semi-arid regions.

c) The remains of mineral materials that cannot be dissolved in waterhavelittle similarity to the parent rocks in humid regions.

d) The succession of horizontal layersin a soil are called the top soil, thesubsoil and the parent material.

SELF EVALUATIONMatch the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1.parent material a) a soil with well developed soil horizon produced by the natural processes of soilformation and essentially in equilibrium with its present environment

2.horizon b) the unconsolidated mineral material on theimmediate surface of the earth that serves as naturalmedium for the growth of land plants

3.soil c) a layer of soil or soil material approximately paralledto the land surface and differing from adjacentgenetically related layers in physical, chemical and biological properties or characteristics such as colour,structure, texture, consistency

4.top soil d) the science dealing with soils as natural resources onthe surface of the earth, including soil formation,classification, and mapping, and the physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

27/96

27

5.weathering e) the upper and most weathered part of the soil profile; the A and B horizons

6.mature soil f) the unconsolidated and more or less chemicallyweathered mineral or organic matter from which the

solum of soils is developed by pedogenic processes7.solum g) all physical and chemical changes produced in rocks, at

or near the earths surface, by atmospheric agents8.soil science h) the layer of soil removed in cultivation

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:The soil system is made up of mineral particles which are mixed withdecomposed organic matter. The top soil consists of this mixture, which is so vitalfor plant growth. Below the top soil is the sub-soil which is largely composed ofmineral matter. In addition to the mineral and organic matter, called the soilsolids, there are spaces between the soil particles which are taken up by water andair to make up the non-solid part of the soil.

Soil solids consist mainly of particles of various sizes. All particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm are silt. Particles larger than 0.02 mm are sand particles, coarse sand and fine sand. Particles smaller than silt are clay particles.Clay is able to absorb a great deal of water owing to the amount of pore space between the particles. Sand does not have this property. Therefore, a soil whichcontains more clay is able to hold more water than a soil with less clay.

The mineral material in all soil is derived from parent material by the process of weathering which breaks down rocks into smaller particles bymechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition.

TEST PAPERTranslate into English:

Pentru definirea texturii solului, particulele elementare de sol sunt grupate,n funcie de mrimea lor, n mai multe categorii, denumite frac iuni granulometrice. Principalele fraciuni granulometrice sunt cele de nisip, prafi

argil. n funcie de textur , solurile se mpart n clase sau specii texturale, caresunt determinate de propor iile dintre fraciunile granulometrice din sol, mai exact

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

28/96

28

de suprafaa specific a solului. Clasele texturale sunt denumite dup fraciuneagranulometric determinant i pot fi determinate, pe baza rezultatelor analizeigranulometrice, n funcie de coninutul n argil i praf al solului.

UNIT 4SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL

Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such 'background'

(or 'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, sincethe first land plants formed the first soil. Even before this, natural processesmoved loose rock, or regolith, off the Earth's surface, just as has happened on the planet Mars. In general, background erosion removes soil at roughly the same rateas soil is formed. But 'accelerated' soil erosion loss of soil at a much faster ratethan it is formed is a far more recent problem. It is always a result of mankind'sunwise actions, such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation practices. These

leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Then, during times of erosive rainfallor windstorms, soil may be detached, transported, and (possibly travelling a longdistance) deposited.

Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both agriculturalareas and the natural environment, and is one of the most widespread of today'senvironmental problems. It has impacts which are both on-site (at the place wherethe soil is detached) and off-site (wherever the eroded soil ends up). More recentlystill, the use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some parts of the world,led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under the action ofgravity: this is so-called tillage erosion.Soil erosion is just one form of soildegradation. Other kinds of soil degradation include salinisation, nutrient loss, andcompaction.

The basic definition of the word erosion is to wear away. Since the earth

was first formed, there has been a continual wearing away of the surface. Manyagents are responsible, but the discussion here will be limited to cultivated fields.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

29/96

29

Erosion processes

Soil may be detached and moved bywater, wind , or tillage. These threehowever differ greatly in terms of:

where and when they occur what happens to the area that is being eroded (on-site impacts) how far the eroded soil is moved, and if the soil is moved away from the place where it was eroded, what

happens as a result (off-site impacts)

Erosion that takes place under natural conditions (i.e. when the land

surface and native vegetative cover have not been disturbed by human activities)is called natural orgeological erosion. On the other hand, when timberland iscleared or grassland is broken up, processes of erosion are accelerated, and wehave unnatural orsoil erosion. Whenever erosion is speeded up as a result ofhuman activities so that it removes all or part of the topsoil, we call the processsoil erosion. Geological erosion is a relatively slow process under manyconditions and soil formation may keep pace with the removal of the surface soil.

Soil erosion, on the contrary, is very rapid when environmental factors favorerosion.

TYPES OF WATER EROSION

Soil erosion by water is the result of rain detaching and transportingvulnerable soil, either directly by means of rainsplash or indirectly by rill andgylly erosion. Erosion by water may be divided into four categories: 1)splash, 2)sheet, 3) rill, and 4)gully.

Splash erosion

Rain may move soil directly: this is known as 'rainsplash erosion' (or just

'splash erosion'). Spash is only effective if the rain falls with sufficient intensity. Ifit does, then as the raindrops hit bare soil, their kinetic energy is able to detach

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

30/96

30

and move soil particles a short distance. Because soil particles can only be moveda few centimetres at most by this process, its effects are solely on-site. Althoughconsiderable quantities of soil may be moved by rainsplash, it is all merelyredistributed back over the surface of the soil (on steep slopes, however, there will

be a modest net downslope movement of splashed soil). Thus a more descriptiveterm might be 'rainsplash redistribution'. Because rainsplash requires high rainfallintensities, it is most effective under convective rainstorms in the worldsequatorial regions. Rainsplash is relatively ineffective where rain falls with a lowintensity (e.g. because the rainfall is of frontal origin), such as in the north-west ofthe USA or in northern Europe.

Sheet erosion

Strictly speaking,sheet erosionrefers to the quite uniform removal of soilfrom the surface of an area in thin layers. For sheet erosion alone to occur it isnecessary that there be a smooth soil surface, which is seldom the case. Usually asoil surface that is designated smooth contains small depressions in which waterwill accumulate. Overflowing from these at the lowest point, the water cuts a tinychannel as it moves down the slope. Duplicated at innumerable points, this

process presently creates a surface cut a multitude of very shallow trenches thatare called rills. None of these may grow to appreciable size of depth, so thesurface soil is rather uniformly removed from the field. Accordingly, sheet erosionand rill erosion work hand in hand; the combined process is usually called sheeterosion, as distinguished from gully formation.

Rill and gully erosion

Although sheet erosion may pass unnoticed by the average observer,gullies attract immediate attention. Rainfall may move soil indirectly, by means ofrunoff in rills (small channels) or gullies (larger channels, too big to be removed by tillage). In many parts of the world, rill and gully erosion is the dominant formof water erosion. They disfigure the landscape and give the impression of landneglect and soil destruction. Not only do gullies result in soil loss but also, theeroded material is usually deposited over more fertile soil at the foot of the slope.

Also, fields dissected by gullies offer many problems in farming operation.Gullying proceeds by three processes: (1)waterfall erosion, (2)channel erosion,

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

31/96

31

and (3)erosion caused by alternate freezing and thawing. Usually more thanone process is active in a gully In many cases, individual microrills becomeineffective over time due to sedimentation. A subset, however, grow further to become rills; and a smaller subset may go on to develop into gullies. This process

of competition between microrills and rills leads to the self-organized formationof networks of erosional channels which form efficient pathways for the removalof water from hillslopes. It is in such erosional channels that water erosion alsooperates most effectively to detach and remove soil by its kinetic energy. In mostsituations erosion by concentrated flow is the main agent of erosion by water.

The flow-dominated erosional channels are separated by interrill areaswhere the dominant processes are rainsplash and diffuse overland flow; however, boundaries between rill and interrill areas are both ill-defined and constantlyshifting.

In some circumstancessubsurface flow may beimportant in determiningwhere channel erosion

will begin and develop(e.g. at the base of slopes,and in areas of very deepsoils such as tropicalsaprolites). Meltwaterfrom thawing snowoperates in a broadly

similar way to rain-derived overland flow,detaching andtransporting unfrozen soilin areas of concentrated flow. Snowmelt erosion is, though, less well studied andless well understood.

As erosional channels increase in size (i.e.grow to become large rills and

gullies), processes such as gravitational collapse of channel walls and headsincrease in importance. Runoff and sediment from rills and gullies may be moved

Large rills (possibly big enough to be called gullies) on an eroding hillslope.http:// home. staffworks.com

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

32/96

32

into ditches, stream and rivers, and so transported well away from the point oforigin. However, sediment may also be deposited within the rill or gully, or beyond the rill or gullys confines in a depositional fan, at locations where thegradient slackens. Here it may be stored for a variable period of time, possibly

being reworked by tillage activity, until a subsequent erosion event is of sufficientsize to re-erode the stored sediment. It may then be redeposited furtherdownstream, or make its way into a permanent watercourse and thence to lake orocean.

WIND EROSION

Is indirectly related to water conservation in that a lack of water leavesland barren and exposed to the wind. Wind erosion reaches its greatest extent insemiarid and arid regions. Nevertheless, much damage is caused to both crops andsoils in humid areas by soil blowing, although the phenomenon is less spectacularand attracts comparatively little attention in these regions.

Wind erosion involves the detachment, transportation and re-deposition of

soil particles by wind. Wind erosion is common on flat, bare areas with dry, sandysoils, or anywhere the soil is loose, dry, and finely granulated. Sandy soils arevery susceptible to erosion, however clay soils which have been pulverised by powered tillage implements or worked when they are too dry are also susceptibleto wind erosion.

Most common on flat, bare areas with dry, sandy soils or soils with littlecohesion.

Removes the nutrient rich clay particles and organic matter, leaving largerinert material behind.

Wind detaches and transports soil particles according to size:o > 1 mm move by rolling (soil creep)o 0.1 1 mm move by saltation, caused by the collision by entrained

particleso < 0.1 mm detach into suspension.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

33/96

33

Prevention and ControlMost soils require at least 30 per cent ground cover to prevent wind

erosion. Vegetation and crop residues prevent wind erosion by reducing soildrying by evaporation, reducing wind speed at ground level and anchoring soil

particles. In crop areas methods such as stubble retention, direct drilling, herbicideweed control and chemical fallows reduce the risk and extent of wind erosion bymaintaining residue cover. In addition, crops with little ground cover can employcover crops of oats or lucerne may be grown through fallow periods to provideshort term protection.

Field shelterbelts can provide extra protection against wind erosion, theytend to reduce the wind velocity for distances up to 30 times the height of the

trees. Field shelter belts usually have yield or quality benefits which help to offsetyield losses associated with taking land out of crop production.Soils with a rougher surface are less prone to wind erosion due to the loweredwind speed at ground level. Surface roughness may be increased by eitherincorporating clays, maintaining residues or mulching.

In crop areas:

Direct drill crops Use herbicides as chemical fallows Maintain crop residue cover Grow cover crops during fallow Maintain of soil organic matter Cultivate at correct soil moisture Grow field shelterbelts Increase surface roughness through clay incorporation.

Cost of Wind Erosion

The cost of wind erosion to the economy and to the environment is large:it impacts on the site from which soil is removed, the air in which it is transportedand the sites at which it is deposited.

Plant nutrients and organic matter are usually concentrated near the soilsurface, making it more fertile than the soil beneath. Wind erosion acts on

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

34/96

34

the soil surface, so the more fertile soil layers are removed. Consequently,wind erosion is damaging to the soil itself, to the general environment andto agricultural productivity.

Dust is the most visual aspect of wind erosion and dust also causes serious

health issues. Deposited wind eroded material can bury pasture and crops, choke creeks,

overtop fences and deposit salt.

The cost of wind erosion includes:

environmental degradation threat to rare and endangered plants and animals loss of production loss of property value loss of soil nutrients loss of grazing and cropping area sandblasting of crops contamination of wool with sand loss of aesthetic value

reduction in air quality human health issues

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

erosion = eroziune, distrugere; roaderetimberland = pmnt mpdurit, pdureenvironmental factor = factor de mediusheet erosion = eroziune de suprafa rill = rigol, rule splash erosion = eroziune prin mprocare

trench =an, canalrill erosion = eroziune priniroire

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

35/96

35

dredge = a dragagully erosion = eroziune n adncimestrip = fiesmooth soil surface = suprafa neted de sol

wind erosion = eroziune eolian saltation = saltaievegetable cover = covor vegetalsoil erodibility = erodabilitatea solului

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSIONAnswer the following questions:

1.What is natural or geological erosion?

2.What is unnatural or soil erosion?

3.Which types of water erosion do you know? 4.What does sheet erosion mean?5.Which are the three processes by which gullying proceeds?6.What does wind erosion involve?7.What does the cost of wind erosion include?

SELF - EVALUATION

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

1. rill erosion a the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil fromthe land surface by runoff water.

2. sheet erosion b an erosion process in which numerous smallchannels of only several inches in depth are formed;occurs mainly on recently cultivated soils.

3. creep erosion c the spattering of small soil particles caused by

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

36/96

36

the impact of raindrop on very wet soils.4. splash erosion d slow mass movement of soil and soil material

down relatively steep slopes primarily under theinfluence of gravity, but facilitated by saturation

with water and by alternate freezing and thawing. PROGRESS TESTTranslate into Romanian:

Wind erosion can be controlled (1) if the soil particles can be built up intoclusters or granules of too large a size to move in saltation; (2) if the wind velocitynear the soil surface can be reduced by ridging the land, by vegetable cover, or

even by developing a cloddy surface; and (3) by providing strips of stubble orother vegetative cover sufficient to catch and hold the particles moving insaltation.

TEST PAPERTranslate into English:

Combaterea eroziunii soluluii chimizarea agriculturii reclam, de

asemenea, cunoaterea amnunit a proprietilor solurilori a r spndirii lor.Cercetrile de sol ofer datele necesare stabilirii msurilor celor mai potrivite pentru combatereai prevenirea eroziunii, nevoii de ngr minte, n funcie decondiiile naturalei de sol, msurilor privind prevenireai combaterea poluriisolului.

UNIT 5SOIL DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

DRAINAGE

Drainage in agriculture was first practiced in Egypt in 3000 B.C. (theFayyum Oasis). In 2000 B.C., clay drainage systems were used to drain arable

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

37/96

37

lands in Mesopotamia, and stone drainage systems were used in the vineyards ofancient Rome. The coastal lowlands of the Netherlands have been drained sincethe ninth and tenth centuries. The first drainage systems using handmade ceramic pipes were built near Bosworth, England, in the 16th century. Open canals were

first used for drainage in Europe in the late 18th century. In the early 19th centurydrain tiles were used in Europe, and by the end of the century, in the UnitedStates.

One meaning of drainage is the natural ability of the soil to allow adownward movement of water. The ease with which water can pass through a soildepends on the proportions in it of coarse and fine particles such as sand and clay.The finer the particles become, the more slowly the water percolates, or passes,

through the soil. So heavy soils such as clay are more impermeable than lightsoils.When there is too much water in the soil, some of it must be drained off.

This is the other meaning of drainage : the removal of excess water from the soil by ditching or tiling, (subsurface drainage). This is done in order to maintain acorrect balance of air and water in the soil. Good drainage makes a soil easier towork. It also helps to increase the feeding area of the soil for the roots of plants.Another advantage is that a well-drained soil will have enough air for aerobic bacteria to break down humus and so provide food for the plant.

Ditching is one of the most important techniques for draining land. Ditchescan be cut at certain intervals between the crops. These will remove surface water.They should be wide and straight, with sloping sides, and they should be regularlycleaned. Another important technique is tile drainage. Porous drainage tiles may be laid in or on the land and these will help to draw off the surplus water. Thedistance between the drains will depend on the level of the land, the permeabilityof the soil, and the amount of rainfall. For very heavy soils mole drainage can beused. This technique is used where water accumulates underground. A tunnel is bored about 3 inches in diameter through the earth at a depth of about 2 feet.

Signs Indicating the Necessity for Drainage :

Soils have a wet and spongy surface. Plants have a withered and sickly appearance and are bleached a

yellowish colour.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

38/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

39/96

39

IRRIGATION

Effective agronomic practices are essential components of irrigatedsystems. Management of the soil fertility, cropping selection and rotation, and

pest control may make as much incremental difference in yield as the irrigationwater itself. Irrigation implies drainage, soil reclamation, and erosion control.When any of these factors are ignored through either a lack of understanding or planning, agricultural productivity will decline. History is absolutely certain onthis point.

Where and when water is in short supply, irrigation is needed to make upthe deficit. We should distinguish between the collection of water and itsapplication. There are two main sources of irrigation water :surface water andground water. The former may be obtained from rivers, lakes or reservoirs, andthe latter is provided by underground water deposits. Irrigation from rivers ismainly along canals from dams which have been built across the rivers. The watercollects behind the dam during the wet season. And it is applied in the fields laterduring the dry season. Subterranean water is obtained by digging or drilling awell. In either case it is necessary to lift the water before it can be used for

irrigation.

The amount of water which is required for irrigation depends on a numberof factors. It depends, firstly, on the type of soil, and the deficit in the soil. By thiswe mean the amount of water which is needed to bring the soil to full capacity. Italso depends on the type of crop, the stage of growth of the crop and the amountwhich it will use at the particular time. The irrigation requirement of a crop is not

the same throughout its growing period. Most plants require larger quantities ofwater during the later stages than in the earlier stages. Choice of the variousmethods of applying irrigation water is influenced by: seasonal rainfall, slope andgeneral nature of the soil surface, supply of water and how it is delivered, croprotation, and permeability to water of the soil and subsoil. The methods ofdistributing water can be classified as surface, subsurface, sprinkler, and drip ortrickle.

Surface irrigation distributes water down rows or into basins and similarareas that are surrounded by ridges or dikes. Flooding of basins and similar areasis used for pastures, orchards, and the like. Crops commonly irrigated by furrow

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

40/96

40

irrigation include row crops such as potatoes, sugar beets, corn grain sorghum,cotton, vegetables, and fruit trees. Furrows are made across the field, leadingdown the slope.

Furrow irrigation. Special furrow systems enhance water management.

Wide-spaced furrows work like alternative-row irrigation, except that every row isirrigated and the rows are further apart.

Subirrigation is irrigation by water movement upward from a free watersurface some distance below the soil surface. In arid regions where almost all ofthe water used to grow crops is from irrigation, subirrigation would cause serioussalt accumulation problems in the upper part of the soil. Subirrigation works bestwhere natural rainfall removes any salts may that accumulate.

Sprinkler irrigation. Everyone is familiar with the sprinklers used towater or irrigate lawns. Sprinkler systems are versatile and have specialadvantages where high infiltration rates or topography prevents proper leveling ofthe land for surface distribution of water. The rate of application can also becarefully controlled. Sprinkler irrigation modifies the plant environment bycompletely wetting the soil and leaves. Reductions in relative humidity andtemperature reduce water stress in plants. The high specific heat of water makessprinkling an effective means to reduce frost hazard.

Hand Move portable sprinkler system

http:// home. staffworks.com

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

41/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

42/96

42

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION Rewrite the following sentences replacing the words printed in italics

with expressions from the text which have the same meaning.

a) Water passes through the soil quickly when theease with which watercan pass through the soil is high.

b) Removing excess water from the soil helps to increase the feeding area ofthe soil for the plant roots.

c) Laying porous drainage tiles on the land helps to remove surplus surfacewater.

d) Water from rivers, lakes or reservoirsmay have to be transported alongcanals a long distance to the fields, whereaswater from undergrounddepositslifted from a well may be close to the crops.

e) How much water a crop requires from irrigation depends partly onthe shortage of waterin the soil.

SELF EVALUATION

Complete and then translate into Romanian the following text byfilling in the blank spaces. Some of the expressions you will requireare given below. A dotted line requires a phrase to beadded, and a straight line ____________ requires a word.

digging or drilling provided lenghtget rid of obtained drained

tube-bored function type of cropmust be

Where and when water is in short supply ___________ is needed in orderto make up for natural rainfall. There are two main sources of ___________

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

43/96

43

water: surface water and . Surface water is ____________ by the flowing waters of rivers or is ___________ from the stillwater of tanks, ponds or artificial ___________. Subterranean water is tapped by wells. Wells may be shallow wells which have been dug by

hand or ____________ wells which have been __________. In either case water lifted before it can be used for ____________.

For a given type of soil the amount of water which is required varies withthe . the plant, its physiological make-up and the ____________ of the growing season.

Where and when there is too much water in the soil some of it must be _________off. Thus, __________ and __________ are alike two faces of a coin.

While the purpose of irrigation is to arrange for sufficient____________in the soilfor satisfactory .., the ____________ of drainage is toremove ____________ moisturefrom the root-zone. To avoid an excess of moisture, care must be taken to..any collection of water either above or below ground surface. There are threemethods of doing _____________: by ditching, by laying.....and by using .

PROGRESS TESTTranslate into Romanian :

Drainage is the prevention or elimination of the unfavorable effects of

water in human economic activity. Drainage is most important for agriculture,where the removal of excess water from the soil root zone is a type of landreclamation that makes it possible to till new lands and increase productivity.Drainage involves hydraulic engineering methods, agricultural techniques, andmanagement measures based on hydraulic engineering methods of controlledremoval of water from the soil root zone. Drainage improves soil moisture andventilation, accelerates the thawing and drying of the soil in the spring, and

promotes the development of beneficial microflora and the growth of crops.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

44/96

44

Translate into Romanian:

Irrigated agriculture faces a number of difficult problems in the future.One of the major concerns is the generally poor efficiency with which waterresources have been used for irrigation. A relatively safe estimate is that 40 percent or more of the water diverted for irrigation is wasted at the farm levelthrough either deep percolation or surface runoff. These losses may not be lostwhen one views water use in the regional context, since return flows become partof the usable resource elsewhere. However, these losses often represent foregoneopportunities for water because they delay the arrival of water at downstreamdiversions and because they almost universally produce poorer quality water. Oneof the more evident problems in the future is the growth of alternative demandsfor water such as urban and industrial needs. These uses place a higher value onwater resources and therefore tend to focus attention on wasteful practices.Irrigation science in the future will undoubtedly face the problem of maximizingefficiency.

TEST PAPER

Translate into English : Drenajul, ca proprietate a solului, poate fi considerat, ntr-o anumit

msur , ca o rezultant a propriet ilor hidrofizice ale solului. Prin drenaj senelege posibilitatea ndeprtrii excesului de ap din sol. Se deosebete drenajulextern, drenajul interni drenajul natural sau global.

Translate into English:

IRIGAII PRIN PICURARE : AVANTAJE

Printre avantajele irigaiilor prin picurare enumer m:

pre extrem de sczut pe metru liniar; ridicarea randamentului culturilor; producie de mai bun calitate; economie de ap i energie; economie de ngr mintei tratamente chimice;

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

45/96

45

mai puine buruieni n zona de cultur i evitarea apariiei de soluricompacte;

zona de pmnt uscat ntre rndurile de plante ce permite un acces permanent n zona cultivat

http: //www.listpicurare.ro

UNIT 6

TILLAGETillage is the practice of working the soil with implements in order to get

conditions favourable to the growth of crops. It is the least lasting of soilimprovements but is very important and depends on skill which comes by practiceand experience. The main consideration in cultivation is the nature of the soil, itstexture or structure, and whether it requires opening or consolidation .

Tillage is the manipulation of the soil into a desired condition bymechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect (such as pulverization, cutting, or movement). Soil is tilled to change its structure, to killweeds, and to manage crop residues. Soil-structure modification is often necessaryto facilitate the intake, storage, and transmission of water and to provide a goodenvironment for seeds and roots. Elimination of weeds is important, because theycompete for water, nutrients, and light. Crop residues on the surface must bemanaged in order to provide conditions suitable for seeding and cultivating a crop.

Generally speaking, if the size of the soil aggregates or particles issatisfactory, preparation of the seedbed will consist only of removing weeds andthe management of residues. Unfortunately, the practices associated with planting,cultivating, and harvesting usually cause destruction of soil structure. This leaves preparation of the seedbed as the best opportunity to create desirable structure, inwhich large and stable pores extend from the soil surface to the water table ordrains, ensuring rapid infiltration and drainage of excess or free water and promoting aeration of the subsoil. When these large pores are interspersed withsmall ones, the soil will retain and store moisture also.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

46/96

46

Seedbed-preparation procedures depend on soil texture and the desiredchange in size of aggregates. In soils of coarse texture, tillage will increaseaggregate size, provided it is done when only the small pores are just filled withwater; tillage at other than this ideal moisture will make for smaller aggregates.

By contrast, fine-textured soils form clods; these require breakage into smallerunits by weathering or by machines. If too wet or too dry, the power requirementsfor shattering dry clods or cutting wet ones are prohibitive when using tillagealone. Thus, the farmer usually attempts tillage of such soils only after a slow rainhas moistened the clods and made them friable.

Some soils require deepening of the root zone to permit increased rate ofwater intake and improved storage. Unfavourable aeration in zones of poor

drainage also limits root development and inhibits use of water in the subsoil.Tillage, particularly conventional plowing, may create a hardpan, or plow sole;that is, a compacted layer just below the zone disturbed by tillage. Such layers aremore prevalent with increasing levels of mechanization; they reduce crop yieldsand must be shattered, allowing water to be stored in and below the shattered zonefor later crops.

Tillages are of two classes: (1) preparing the soil for crops; (2) keeping thesoil in condition after the crop has been put in. The object of the first operation isto refine and deepen the soil for root development; to cause the soil to dry out onthe surface and warm it for the germination of the seed, and to increase the water-holding power of the soil. In the second case, the object of tillage is to control soilmoisture, keep down the weeds and consolidate the soil.

Tillages are all operations of a mechanical nature. The complete objects oftillage are: (a) the production of a suitable tilth or soil structure; (b) the control ofsoil moisture, aeration and temperature; (c) the destruction of weeds; (d) thedestruction or control of soil pests; (e) burying or clearing rubbish and the mixingof manures in the soil.

THE PRODUCTION OF TILTH. Some crops require a very fine seed bed, while others do best where there are clods. In preparing seedbeds, ploughingis usual, but not always the first operation. The plough cuts the soil intorectangular slices or furrows so that the rubbish is buried and the soil surface isexposed in a rough condition to the weather.There may be a long interval before

the next operation, but later on the land is cultivated by grubber, cultivator,

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

47/96

47

harrow,discs, or rollers to give the desired tilth. Very often many implements haveto be used before the desired result is obtained.

CONTROL OF MOISTURE, AERATION AND TEMPERATURE. Soiltemperature and aeration are closely associated with soil moisture and the

conditions of cultivation most suitable for supply of soil moisture are thecultivations which give most suitable conditions of air and temperature.

DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS . Annual weeds can be killed by completely burying or by dragging them out and leaving the roots exposed to dry weather.Most weeds are easily destroyed in the seedling stage and one object of tillage isto create soil condition which will make weed seeds germinate so that theseedlings may be destroyed by further cultivation.

THE CONTROL OF SOIL PESTS. Various soil tillages may bring peststo the surface and expose them to the attack of the birds, and some tillages (e.g.rolling) may crush pests, but generally speaking, conditions of cultivation whichfavour the growth of healthy crops are against conditions which favour insect pests.

BURYING RUBBISH AND MIXING MANURE IN THE SOIL . The plough is normally used for burying the remains of plants, rubbish and dung, andone of the chief requirements of good ploughing is that all vegetation should becovered by soil.Cultivators and harrows are often used for mixing fertilizer withthe soil before the crop is sown.Sometimes drills and planting machines place thefertilizers in bands close to the crop.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

Words and Phrases

implement = s. (agr.) unealt, obiect, articol; mijloc, instrumenttillage = s. (agr.) lucrarea soluluitilth = s. (agr.) condiie fizic caracteristica solului bine lucratto puddle = vt. a bttori (solul n stare umed )seedbed = s. pat germinativseedling stage = n stadiu de r sad

clod = s. bulgre, bucat (de pamnt sau lut) plough = s. plug

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

48/96

48

ploughing = s. ar tur furrow = s. (agr.) brazd; cut; f ga; urm de roat grubber = s. (agr.) plug de deselenit; s plig pentru scosul r dcinilorcultivator = s. cultivator

harrow = s. grap disc plough = plug cu discurichisel plough = cultivator pentru pregtirea soluluiseeding plough = plug semntoareseeding machine = semntoareto drag = v. a trage cu putere; a scoate tr gnd

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION Choose the proper term

1. A roller is used to break up the (clods, ridges) and compact theseedbed.

2. A (seedling, legume) is a crop sometimes used as green manure.3. A ( roller, harrow) is an implement used to compact soil.4. A (ridge, furrow) is a small ditch brtween two (furrows,ridges)

SELF EVALUATION

Match the terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

a. saltatation 1. breaking into tiny particles b.fallowing 2. making small hollows to catch waterc. strip farming 3.the blowing of soil particlesd. pulverizing 4. a pile of material made by the winde. erode 5. leaving unplanted,but cultivatedf. precipitation 6. saving or protecting something

g. drought 7. rain or snowh. basin listing 8. wear away

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

49/96

49

i. conservation 9. lack of moisture j. drift 10. planting different crops in strips side

by side

PROGRESS TESTTranslate into Romanian:

Tilling is used to remove weeds, shape the soil into rows for crop plants andfurrows for irrigation. This leads to unfavorable effects, like soil compaction; lossof organic matter; degradation of soil aggregates; death or disruption of soilmicrobes and other organisms including mycorrhiza, arthropods, and earthworms;and soil erosion where topsoil is blown or washed away. No-till farming avoidsthese effects by excluding the use of tillage. With this way of farming, cropresidues or other organic amenities are retained on the soil surface and

sowing/fertilizing is done with minimal soil disturbance. Continuous no-till needsto be managed very differently in order to keep or increase yield on the field.Residue, weeds, equipment, crop rotations, water, disease, pests, and fertilizermanagement are just some of the many details of farming that change whenswitching to no-till.

TEST PAPER

Translate into English:Lucr rile care se aplic solului pot fi clasificate dup mai multe criterii: a)

uneltele cu care se execut; b) dup adncimea de executare a lucr rii; c) dup epoca de executare.Aratul este lucrarea principal de pregtire a solului care seaplic nainte de semnatul oricarei plantei care se execut cu plugul. Prinar tur , volumul solului se mrete cu 20-30%.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

50/96

50

BIBLIOGRAPHY MODULE III (UNIT 1-UNIT 6 )

ALEXANDRESCU C., ndreptar de limb englez pentru agronomi, Ed.Ceres, Bucureti, 1984.

ALTIERI MIGUEL, Agroecology: the Science of Sustainable

Agriculture, Westview Press, Boulder, Co, 1995BLAKE FRANCIS, Organic Farming and Growing , WBC Book

Mnufactures Ltd., Bridgend, Mid Glamorgan, 1990CHILRESCU M., PAIDOS C., Practical Course of English, Ed.

Polirom, Iai, 2006CHIROBOCEA OTILIA, English for natural sciences, upper,

intermediate, advanced , Ed. Ovidius University Press, Constana, 2005

LEVICHI LEON, Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. Stiinific, Bucureti,1967LUNGU SMARANDA ANDA, Agricultural English extension course, Ed.

Salgo, Sibiu, 2008MISZTAL M.,Test your vocabulary, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1994MISZTAL M., Test your English Grammar, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1996MUNTEAN LEON C., BORCEAN I., AXINTE M., Fitotehnie, Ed.

Didactic i pedagogic, R.A. Bucureti, l995MURPHY RAYMOND, English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University

Press, 2003PUNESCU ANCA, Course for Agriculture English, Ed. Arves, Craiova,

2008RAVEN PETER H. , Biology of plants, Worth Publishers, New York,

1986SIDE R., GUY W., Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced

and Proficiency, Longman, Edinburgh, 2004

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

51/96

51

SWAN MICHAEL, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press,1992

YATES, C. ST., Agriculture (English for Academic Purposes Series),Cassel Publishers Limited, l989

ZAHARIE OANA, Dic ionar Romn-Englez specialitate agronomic , Ed.Sitech, Craiova, 2008

DICIONARE

Dicionar englez rom n, Ed. Acad. Rom n, 1974

Dicionar rom n englez, Ed.tiinific, Bucureti, 1973

Dicionar agricol n opt limbi, Praga, 1970

Dicionar de tiina solului, Ed.tiinific i enciclopedic,

Bucureti,1977

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1964

Collins Business English Dictionary, London 1989

http://www. tettafertil.rohttp://www.enjoy-your-garden.conhttp: //www.listpicurare.rohttp:// www.home. staffworks.comhttp://www.dpiw.tas.gov.au

http://www.soilerosion.nethttp://www.environment.nswhttp://www.answers.comBritanica Concise Encyclopedia on lineFood and Culture Encyclopedia on line

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

52/96

52

MODULE IV

UNIT 7FARM MACHINERY

Tillage equipment can be divided into two general classes, namely: (1) primary tillage equipment and (2) secondary tillage equipment.

Primary tillage equipment

Equipment used to break and loosen soil for a depth of six to 36 inches (15

to 90 centimetres) may be called primary tillage equipment. It includesmoldboard, disk, rotary, chisel, and subsoil plows

The moldboard plow is adapted to the breaking of many soil types. It iswell suited for turning under and covering crop residues. There are hundreds ofdifferent designs, each intended to function best in performing certain tasks inspecified soils. The part that breaks the soil is called the bottom or base; it iscomposed of the share, the landside, and the moldboard.

When a bottom turns the soil, it cuts a trench, or furrow, throwing to oneside a ribbon of soil that is called the furrow slice. When plowing is started in themiddle of a strip of land, a furrow is plowed across the field; on the return trip, afurrow slice is lapped over the first slice. This leaves a slightly higher ridge thanthe second, third, and other slices. The ridge is called a back furrow. When twostrips of land are finished, the last furrows cut leave a trench about twice the width

of one bottom, called a dead furrow. When land is broken by continuous lappingof furrows, it is called flat broken. If land is broken in alternate back furrows and

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

53/96

53

dead furrows, it is said to be bedded or listed. Different soils require different-shaped moldboards in order to give the same degree of pulverization of the soil.Thus, moldboards are divided into several different classes, including stubble,general-purpose, general-purpose for clay and stiff-sod soil, slat, blackland, and

chilled general-purpose The share is the cutting edge of the moldboard plow. Itsconfiguration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction, or concavity,of its lower surface. Generally, three degrees of down suction are recognized:regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double-deep for clay andgravelly soils. In addition, the share has horizontal suction, which is the amountits point is bent out of line with the landside. Down suction causes the plow to penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes

the plow to create the desired width of furrow.

Thedisk plow employs round, concave disks of hardened steel, sharpenedand sometimes serrated on the edge, with diameters ranging from 20 to 38 inches(50 to 95 centimetres). It reduces friction by making a rolling bottom in place of asliding one. Its draft is about the same as that of the moldboard plow. The disk plow works to advantage in situations where the moldboard will not, as in stickynon-scouring soils; in fields with a plow sole; in dry, hard ground; in peat soils;

and for deep plowing. The disk-plow bottom is usually equipped with a scraperthat aids in pulverizing the furrow slice. Disk plows are either trailed or mountedintegrally on a tractor.

The rotary plows essential feature is a set of knives or tines rotated on ashaft by a power source. The knives chop the soil up and throw it against a hoodthat covers the knife set. These machines can create good seedbeds, but their high

cost and extra power requirement have limited general adoption, except for thesmall garden tractor.

The chisel plow is equipped with narrow, double-ended shovels, or chisel points, mounted on long shanks. These points rip through the soil and stir it but donot invert and pulverize as well as the moldboard and disk plows. The chisel plowis often used to loosen hard, dry soils prior to using regular plows; it is also usefulfor shattering plow sole.

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

54/96

54

Subsoil plows are similar in principle but are much larger, since they areused to penetrate soil to depths of 20 to 36 inches (50 to 90 centimetres). Tractorsof 60 to 85 horsepower are required to pull a single subsoil point through a hardsoil at a depth of 36 inches. These plows are sometimes equipped with a torpedo-

shaped attachment for making subsurface drainage channels.

Secondary tillage equipment

Secondary tillage, to improve the seedbed by increased soil pulverization,to conserve moisture through destruction of weeds, and to cut up crop residues, isaccomplished by use of various types of harrows, rollers, or pulverizers, and toolsfor mulching and fallowing. Used for stirring the soil at comparatively shallow

depths, secondary-tillage equipment is generally employed after the deeper primary-tillage operations; some primary tillage tools, however, are usable forsecondary tillage. There are five principal types of harrows: the disk, the spike-tooth, the spring-tooth, the rotary cross-harrow, and the soil surgeon. Rollers, or pulverizers, with V-shaped wheels make a firm and continuous seedbed whilecrushing clods. These tools often are combined with each other.

When moisture is scarce and control of wind and water erosion necessary,tillage is sometimes carried out in such a way that crop residues are left on thesurface. This system is called trash farming, stubble mulch, or subsurface tillage.Principal equipment for subsurface tillage consists of sweeps and rod weeders.Sweeps are V-shaped knives drawn below the surface with cutting planeshorizontal. A mounted set of sweeps provided with power lift and depth regulationis often called a field cultivator.

The typical rod weeder consists of a frame with several plowlike beams,each having a bearing at its point. Rods are extended through the bearings, whichrevolve slowly under power from a drive wheel. The revolving rod runs a fewinches below the surface and pulls up vegetative growth; clearance of the growthfrom the rod is assisted by its rotation. Rod weeders are sometimes attached tochisel plows.

Some control of weeds is obtained by tillage that leaves the middles between crop rows loose and cloddy. When a good seedbed is prepared only in the

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

55/96

55

row, the seeded crop can become established ahead of the weeds. Plowing withthe moldboard plow buries the weed seeds, retards their sprouting, and tends toreduce the operations needed to control them. If weed infestations become bad,they can be reduced somewhat by undercutting.

Since rainfall amount and distribution seldom match crop needs, farmersusually prefer tillage methods that encourage soil-moisture storage at times whencrops are not growing. From the soil-moisture standpoint, any tillage practice thatdoes not control weeds and result in greater moisture intake and retention duringthe storage period is probably unnecessary or undesirable.

Minimum tillage

The use of cropping system with minimal tillage is usually desirable, because intensive tillage tends to break down soil structure. Techniques such asmulching also help prevent raindrops from injuring the surface structure.Excessive tillage leaves the soil susceptible to crusting, impedes water intake,increases runoff, and thus reduces water storage for crop use. Intensive vegetable production in warm climates where three crops per year may be grown on the

same land may reduce the soil to a single-grain structure that facilitates surfacecementation and poor aeration.

The loosening and granulating actions of plowing may improve soilstructure if the plowing is done when the moisture content is optimum; if not sotimed, however, plowing can create unfavourable structure. The lifting andinversion of the furrow slice likewise may not always be desirable, because inmany cases it is better to leave a trashy surface.

The concept ofminimum tillage has received much attention. One type ofminimum tillage consists in seeding small grain in sod that has been relativelyundisturbed. Narrow slits are cut in the sod and seed and fertilizer placed in the breaks thus formed. Soil normally subject to erosion can be planted to grain thisway while still retaining the erosion resistance of the sod. In another type ofminimum tillage, the land is broken and planted without further tillage in seedbed

preparation. One approach involves breaking the land and planting seeds in thetractor tracks (wheel-track planting); the tractor weight crushes clods and leaves

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

56/96

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

57/96

57

harvesting equipment = main de recoltattrailed plough = plug tractat broadcast planter = semntoare de semnat prin mpr tierehay harvesting equipment = main de recoltat fn

root harvesting equipment = main pentru recoltat r dcinoasemower = cositoarerake = grebl crusher = main de strivitfield forage harvester = combin pentru recoltat furajewindrower = br zdardrill planter = semntoare pentru cereale pioase

drier = uscatordrill = semntoare n rnduritractor-drawn combine = combin tractat feed grinder = main pentru mcinat furajefeed mixer = amestector de furajefield-flail forage harvester = combin pentru recoltat furaje cu rotorfield chopper harvester = main pentru recoltati tocat furaje

EXERCISES

COMPREHENSION

A tutor is giving some students instructions about safety. Read carefully whathe says and write down the main ideas of his advice.

I want to say one or two things before we go out to the farm next week. Asyou know, we are spending a week there so that you can get to know how to driveand use equipment such as tractors, combine harvesters, and so on. Some of whatI want to say may sound obvious, but we have had some quite bad accidents in the past, and I dont want any more. Accidents on the farm are usually caused bycarelessness and stupidity, and thats quite unnecessary. So first, do exactly what

the demonstrator says.If he says stand back, stand back.And stand exactlywhere he tells you. Dont go round to a side of the machine where he cant see

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

58/96

58

you.And dont touch any part of the machine untill he tells you to.That will bewhen the machine is off. One student lost his hand five years ago, just because hewas on the wrong side of a combine and put his hand in.

Next, do wear proper clothing. When you come to use the combine, youll

find glasses of some kind useful to keep the dust out. Although its not absolutelynecessary, you may also find gloves useful.When you first use some of thesemachines, youll find theyre hard on the hands. And dont bring only a smartsuit.Youll be asked to clean parts of the machines, and carry out other kinds ofmaintenance work. You cant do that in a suit. So bring suitable clothes. Dontwear clothes that blow around in the wind, though: they can get caught in themachinery and pull you into it.

Now, one last thing. When youre actually driving things like tractors,dont get too excited. Drive slowly to start with. A tractor is not a racing car.Remember, it is easy to turn a tractor over, especially on a hill. And if yourtractor does not have a safety cab, you can get trapped underneath it as it falls. So,drive slowly and safely.

SELF EVALUATION

Fill in the blanks with the proper terms from the list

clover seed bedcover crops stubbledisk tractorfitting weedsmat

1) On a modern farm, implements are drawn by a2) An implement used to break up sod is a3) The process of breaking up sod is called the soil.4) Sod may be produced by a growth of grass or5) The roots and the soil that clings to them are called the6) The soil which is prepared for planting is called the7) In addition to preparing the soil for planting,tillage turns under the

which was left standing when an earlier crop was cut.8) It also turns under which have been planted to reduce erosion and

8/13/2019 AGRO ID vol.2 10.09

59/96

59

leaching.9) And it slows up the growth of undesired plants, or

PROGRESS TEST

Translate into Romanian:

Farmers perform tillage when they prepare soil for the raising of crops.Soil tillage has three primary purposes. Prior to planting, farmers use tillage tomix compost, manure, and other fertilizers into the root zone where growing plantroots may reach it. Tillage also aids seed germination by creating a smooth,uniform soil surface for planting. After planting, farmers use tillage to controlweeds between crop plantsincluding vegetable, fruit, forest, medicinal, andfarm crops. Since early agriculture, tillage has been the first step in the processthat makes it possible to harvest food from plants. However, soil tillage has comeunder close scrutiny since soil is recognized as a natural resource that deserves protection. Agronomists (scientists who study crop production and soilmanagement) are concerned because erosion (soil loss) from tillage is one of themost significant problems in agriculture. If left unchecked, soil erosion leads